Figure 1.--At the turn of the 20th century, Federal child labor laws did not yet protect children. This was espcislly true in the South which also did not have mndatory school attendance laws. This girl was beginning work at a textile mill in Newton, South Carolina. More than 10 percent of mill workers were children under 12 years of age. The situation was even worse for agricultural laborers. This photograph would have been taken about 1910. Source: Lewis W. Hine.

HBC does not yet have detailed information on the child labor pattern by country, but has begun to address the topic. Here the countries we are most familiar with are England and America. England as far as we know was the first country to address the problm of child labor. This is understandable as it was in England that the Industrial Revolution began. Charles Dickens had a major role in prmoting the movement to limit child labor. Parlimentary investigations led to laws limiting child labor. Developments in France and Germany are also very important, but we have little information at this time. We have some limited country information in the various wotk area sections. We will eventually cross reference these on the country pages.

America

Many of the Founding Fathers led by Jefferson saw America's future as a great agrarian republic based upon the small farmer. It was, however, Hamilton's vision of America as a mercantile economy that proved to the more astute assessment. Someof the worst conditions experienced in Britain during the early 19th century did not occur in America because of the more limited industrial devekpment and the beconing Frontier offered opportunity that made it difficult to oppress labor, except in the slae-holding South. After the Civil War (1861-65) as American industry expanded , the Frontier began to close, and immigrants willing to work for low wages poured into America, working conditions became an increasingly severe problem. As in Europe, conditions for children were especially horendous. Only in the late 19th century did child labor begin to become an important national issue.

England

England as far as we know was the first country to address the problm of child labor. This is understandable as it was in England that the Industrial Revolution began. Child and women workers played a major role in the Industrial Revolution. Charles Dickens had a major role in prmoting the movement to limit child labor. Parlimentary investigations exposed the abuses, but influential English capitalists committed to laiisez faire government claimed that governmental restrictions were an infringement of their rights. Here Dickens and news accounts of abuses gradually swung public opinion to governmental action to protect children. Finally Parliament began limiting child labor, the initial laws were very minor restrictions.

France

Developments in France are also very important, but we have little information at this time. We do not yet have much information about French boys working. France in the 19th century had the same problems associated with child labor as oyher countries as they industrialized. These are best known in England because of Charles Dickens, but similar problems were experienced in other countries such as France. We are not familiar yet, however, with the efforts in France to regulate child labor. We believe that the problem was addresses sooner in Franced than in Britain and America, but do not yet have the historical details. The French children most likely to work in the 20th century were children in rurral areas who worked on family farms. Hopefully French readers will provide us some details about child labor in France.

Germany

German boys in the medieval era mostly worked on fedual estates. Very few boys received a formal education. As in the rest of Europe, some boys worked as aprentices under the guilds which became an major institution in economic and social life. We do not yet have information specifically on German apprentices, although some information is available on guild appretices in general. After the decline of the guilds, boys continued to work as aprentices, although the arrangments were less regulated. Other boys were sold into indentured servitude. With the advent of the industrial revolution, many German boys as elsewhere in Europe worked in the factories that appeared in the growing cities. Their maegre earnings were often required to support the family. The conditions were described by Dickens and other English authors. Presumanly German authors also addressed the topic of child labor and urban slum life, but I am not familiar with the German literature. One institution that seems uniquely German is the Schwabenkinder. This began before the industrial revolution, but continued into the 20th century.

Italy

We have little information about child labor in Italy. As a relatively pooe country until After World war II and European integration, there was presumably a serious child labor problem. Southern Italy was especially poor, almost feudal. This meant that child labor was largely rural labor. We notice many children selling items like matches and gum n the street. One Italian artist, Ettore Roesler Franz, specialized in painting humble people of the steet in Rome.

Russia

Many Russians labored as serfs until freed by Tsar Alexander II (1861). Even afrer emancipation, the former serfs and their children continued living on a large agricultural estates.

Sweden

We do not yet have much information on child labor in Sweden. We do note reports of child auctions during the 19th century. There was an estanlished system of auctions placing children with families if their parents could not look after them. Child labor was primarily in agriculture. Boys in the towns and cities might be appreticed. This began to change with the the industrial revolution of the 19th century, although there continued to be child labor in the agricultural sector. Sweden and the Scandinavian countries in general were among the leaders in addressing the problem of child labor. The Government passed a law to limit the hours children worked and to provide for government payments to health insurance funds established by workers' groups. Regulations protecting women working in mines were ot passed until the turn-of-the 20th century. [Nordstrom, p.78.] Laws protecting women also had a direct impact on chidren as they were the primary csare givers for young children. The Government was hostile toward organized labor throughout the 19th century which impacted working-class children, both children to young to work and those entering the labor force. We are not sure yet when compulsory school attendance was introduced. This of course was a key step in limiting child labor.

Switzerland

Work was a major activity that modst children were involved in through the 19th century. This of course was the state of affairs throughout history. Only in the 19h-century did governments begin ensacting minimum age laws for employing children and compulsory school attendance laws which affected availability for employment. We have very few details at this time about Swiss legislation protecting children. Switzerlkand was striongly influenced by Germany trends. The Swiss economy was similar in many ways to the German economy, but was not as highly industrialized as the nearby Ruhr valley. Many Swiss boys as they ebtered their tennyears were involved in apprenticeship schemes. Much of Switzerland was rural and dominated by agriculture. Thus many boys were invoilved in agriculural work. Most of the contry's agricultural land was divided into small family holdings. This meant than many children were involved in farm work, often chores on the family farm.

Created: February 13, 2004
Last updated: 7:38 PM 8/24/2009