Figure 1.-- |
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The end of Roman rule in Britain can be seen as the beginning of the Medieval era. Raids of Germanic tribes had begun even before Rome withdew it legions. The Anglo-Saxons and Jutes gradually expand their raids which become waves of invasion which gradually turned into settlement by the 5th century just as it did in the rest of the Western Empire. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were Christianized by missionaries from both Rome and Ireland. Christianity became an important cultural influence in England for the first time. The first Viking or Norsemen, appear in the 8th century and raids gradually increase in severity. The first raids were on islands and coastal towns. The Vikings are often referred to in English history as the Danes, but not all came from Denmark. The Vikings began full scale invasions (865). The Danes almost overran all of Britain , but were fimnally stopped by King Alfred of Wessex. Feudalism developed in Britain much as it did on the continent. The Germanic invaders (Saxons and Jutes) were freeman (ceorl). They were responsible to the tribal chiefs and were not serfs. Over time war and subsistence farming had reduced most freemen into serfdom. William the Conqueror after defeating Harold at Hastings (1066) brought Norman-style political and military feudalism to England. He was the most efficent administrator since the departure of the Romans. William used the feudal system to collect detailed information on his new realm and collect taxes. England as other Medieval kingdoms was faced with a struggle for supremecy between Church and state. This conflict became especially severe during the reign of Henry II. Loyal supporters of the king murdered Arch Bishop Thomas à Becket in Canterbury Cathedral. King Edward I initiated the conquest of both Wales and Scotland. The trading interest of the Danes had brought renewed vigor to towns in England. Norman rule with their concern woith administration further promoted the growth of towns. Another factor was the perpetual need of English kings to borrow money. Many towns were able to in effect purchase royal charters which detailef grants of rights. In all the Feudal kingdoms of Europe, there was an inherent tension between the king and his nobels. This conflict became became increasingly serious under Richard I and reached a crisis under King John. A victory by the barons forced Jpohn to sign the Magna Carta (1215). Thedocument is considered to be one of the modst important constitutional charters in history. While it applied only to the barons, it limited royal power and was a major first step in English democracy. Edward III initiated the Hundred Years War with France (1337). Edward had a claim to the French crown through his mother. Hostilities erupted and cintinued over 100 years. The plague or Black Death devestated Europe. It began in Italy and moved rapidly north. The Channel was no barrier. It soon reched England (1348). Along with the pain and suffering there was a significant economic impact. The huge number of people killed significantly reduced the labor force, altering the relationship beteen the nobility and the peasantry. The plague accelerated a process already underway of breaking down the Feudal System. The Wars of the Roses was a drawn out dynastic civil war pitting the House of Lancaster against the House of York. The English economy centered on the wool trade and the inclosues to increase wool production had profoundconsequences. Almost independent of the German Refomation was the Reformation in England, but this proved to be crucial because of the future imperial role of England. Political rather than religious issues were to drive the Reformation in England. England emerged from the Medieval era during the Tudor era.
Relatively little is known about ancient Britain. There are some fascinating archeological sites, which offer tantalizing glimpses of ancientlife such as their dolmens and barrows. The best known sites are of course the massive stone circles at Stonehenge and Avebury. The earliest Britains had evolved into Bronze Age culture by the time the first
Celtic peoples reached Nritain in the early 5th century BC.
The Celts were the dominant culture in Europe north of Greece and Rome. They were an iron age peole when they invaded Britain in the 5th centuy. ) brought their energetic Iron Age culture to Britain. The Celts encountered by Ceasar were related to those in Britain.
Julius Ceasar was the first Roman to invade Britain. His interest in Briain appears to be associated with his invasion and conquest of Gaul. His invasion appears to be an attemp to prevent Celtic raids on Gaul from Britain (54 BC). The Romans did not, however, achieve a permant presence in Britain until the reign of Emperor Claudius (43 AD). London and Colchester were some of the earliest Roman settlements, but within a few decades, Britain south of Scotland (the Clyde) was in Roman hand (85 AD). The Celts were not easily passified and there were revolts that the Romans brutally supressed. The largest was that staged by Queen Boadicea afterher daughter had been brutalized by Romans. The Emperor Hadrian hadca wall constructed accross northern England in the 2nd century AD. The wall was built to prevent raids from unpacified barbariand to the north. Occiupying the military may have been a secondary reason. Rome changed the face of Celtic Britain. Important towns appeared, in addition to London and Colchester, were Bath, Lincoln, Gloucester and York are important Roman towns, but there are many others. Many towns were colonia, founded as settlements for retired legionaries. The Romans also built the first real roads in Britain, primarily for military purposes, but they were also of great ecomonic use. Roman Britain imported many of the refinments of Roman life, including wine, olive oil, plate, clothing, and furnishings of all kinds. Raw materials such as lead, tin, iron, wheat, and wool as well as slaves were exportec back to Rome. This trade and economic activity in general began to decline with the economic dislocation experienced in the 4th century as the Roman Empire struggled to contain the Germanic tribes on their eastern frontier. The Romans were gradually forced to withdraw legions from Britain to meet the growing barbarian threats to Gaul and Rome itself. The withdraw of the the legions reduced the urban population and combined with declining trade with Rome, overal economic activity declined. Urban life declined and the reduced Roman force had difficulty meeting barbarian incursions. Roman Britainss appealed to the Western Empire for assistrance (410). The emperor sorely pressed by both Germans and Huns was unable to provide military support and Roman administrators were soon withdrawn altogether. It was the legions and important officials who left. Many Romans stayed in Britain and were gradually absorbded along with many Celts in the Germanic invasions that followed. The departure of the legions marks the beginning of Medieval Britain.
The end of Roman rule in Britain can be seen as the beginning of the Medieval era. Raids of Germanic tribes had begun even before Rome withdew it legions. The Anglo-Saxons and Jutes gradually expand their raids which become waves of invasion which gradually turned into settlement by the 5th century just as it did in the rest of the Western Empire. The Celts were either absorbed or withdrew into remote sections of Britain, Wales and Cornwall and even across the Channel to Brittany. Gradually the loosely associated Germanic tribes began to develop more formal associations and regional kingdoms began to form in Kent, Sussex, Essex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia, and Northumbria. Although Chridstianity had been introduced to Britain by the Romans, the Celts had for the most part not been Chritianized and the Germanic invasers of the 5th century were still pagan.
The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were Christianized by missionaries from both Rome and Ireland. Christianity became an important cultural influence in England for the first time. Differences between Irish and Roman doctrinal issues and religious customs were decided in favor of Rome at the Synod of Whitby (663). Monastic communities were founded and by the 7th century were of considerable importance. As centers of wealth many were attscked and destroyed by the Vikings. They were, however, revived in the 10th century and gradualy acquired extensive land holdings and wealth. Many were noted for manuscript illumination. Church scholars pomoted learming. King Alfred of Essex was also known for his interest in learing. A major source on the early medieval era in England comes to us from the writing and historical accounts of the Venerable Bede who lived in the late 7th and early 8th centuries. All learning and education at the time was in the hands of the Church.
The first Viking or Norsemen, appear in the 8th century and raids gradually increase in severity. The first raids were on islands and coastal towns. The Vikings are often referred to in English history as the Danes, but not all came from Denmark. The Vikings began full scale invasions (865). The Danes almost overran all of Britain , but were fimnally stopped by King Alfred of Wessex. Britain was split between the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the Danelaw. Within the Danelaw, the land was divided among the Danish warriors. Alfred's successors eventually conquered the Danelaw and form the first united English kingdom. The Danes left an enduring imprint on England in place names and in English law, such as trial by jury. Danish invaders overcame King Æthelred (965?-1016) in the 10th century. A Dane, Canute became king (1016). When the Danish line expired (1042), Edward the Confessor of the Wessex dynasty regained the throne, although the Dane Godwin held the true power. After Edward's death Harold was establishing his control when William, duke of Normandy invaded and defeated Harold at Hastings (1066).
Feudalism developed in Britain much as it did on the continent. The Germanic invaders (Saxons and Jutes) were freeman (ceorl). They were responsible to the tribal chiefs and were not serfs. Over time war and subsistence farming had reduced most freemen into serfdom. This was not just the descendents of the Germans, but also the conquered Romans and celts that had not fled to the west (Wales and Cornwall). Most of the population was dependant on the Anglo-Saxon aristocracy of lords and thanes. Towns and urban life were of only minor importance in Anglo-Saxon Britain. With the development of the rural based manorial system, Anglo-Saxon thanes achieved a substantial measure of autonomy over their manors. ribal chiefs evolved into the monarchs of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms. The monarch had legislative, executive, and judicial powers. The aristocracy formed a council of advisers (witenagemot). The king established the shires that have come doen in modern times to be the counties of England. The shires were goverened by earldormen. These were appointments made by the king, but over time sime became powerful hereditary earls who conrolled several shires. Shire courts were overseen by sheriffs. Anglo-Saxon Britain had an agricultural economy. Without large urban population centers there was limited manufacture or trade. This began to change with the coming of the Vikings (Danes) in the 9th century. The Danes were avid traders and it is at thi time that larger urban center begin to appear in Bitain for the first time since the demise of Roman Britain.
Williaam with his victory at Hastings became King William I of England. William move rapidly to seize control over all of Anglo-Saxon England. After the death of William's second son, Henry I, civil war broke out. Henry II acceeded to the throne (1154). Henry II's reign saw the development of conflict between the monarchy and the Church. Henry was noted for his judicial reforms which greatly expanded the authority and scope of the royal courts. Henry initated English efforts to conquer of Ireland. (1171). Conflict between Richar I and John I and heir nobility resulted in the signing of the Magna Carta (1215) and the principal of limits on royal power. King Edward I initiated the conquest of both Wales and Scotland. He also implemented important reforms and expansion of the central courts. Dynastic conflicts, especilly the War of the Roses depleted the nobility and weakened the monarchy in the 15th century. The Tudor family assended the throne (1485).
William the Conqueror brought Norman-style political and military feudalism to England. He was the most efficent administrator since the departure of the Romans. William used the feudal system to collect detailed information on his new realm and collect taxes. He made use of the church bureaucracy to strengthen the new central government. He also created a more efficent royal justice system.
England as other Medieval kingdoms was faced with a struggle for supremecy between Church and state. This conflict became especially severe during the reign of Henry II. Loyal supporters of the king murdered Arch Bishop Thomas à Becket in Canterbury Cathedral.
King Edward I initiated the conquest of both Wales and Scotland.
King Edward I initiated the conquest of both Wales and Scotland.
Henry II initated English efforts to conquer of Ireland (1171). It would be a process that would take centuries and England and Ireland still live with the consequences to thid day.
Henry II as his inheritance from his mother received the provinces of Anjou, Normandy, and Aquitaine. While dispersed these provinces were in wealth comparable to that of England. They also made Henry the most imporant nobel in France. The result would be wars with France for several centuries. Efforts to enlarge these these territories and even seize the French bthrone would engaged a series of English monatrchs and eventually lead to the Hundreds Year War and the destrution of the French nobility at ????.
The trading interest of the Danes had brought renewed vigor to towns in England. Norman rule with their concern woith administration further promoted the growth of towns. Another factor was the perpetual need of English kings to borrow money. Many towns were able to in effect purchase royal charters which detailef grants of rights.
In all the Feudal kingdoms of Europe, there was an inherent tension between the king and his nobels. This conflict became became increasingly serious under Richard I and reached a crisis under King John. John escaalated financial demands on the nobility while persuing failed foreignpolicies. His church policies were also unsuccessful. A victory by the barons forced Jpohn to sign the Magna Carta (1215). Thedocument is considered to be one of the modst important constitutional charters in history. While it applied only to the barons, it limited royal power and was a major first step in English democracy. The baronial wars flared again in the 13th century and played a role in the rise of Parliament.
Edward III initiated the Hundred Years War with France (1337). Edward with his many French possessions refused to do homage to King Philip VI of France. Edward had aclaim to the French crown through his mother. Hostilities erupted and cintinued over 100 years. The French suffered some serious defeats in the early years of the war, Crécy (1346) and Poitiers (1356). At Poitiers French King John the Good was captured by the English Black Prince Under Charles V the struggle became a war of attrition. He relied on Bertrand du Guesclin to engage the marauding Free Companies, marauding mercenaries. Charles V by his death had stabilized the struggle (1380). England's Richard II seeme willing to settle the differences. Charles VI's mental instability and feuding princes undermined the French position. John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, had the king's brother, Louis of Orleans murdered (1487). This left France deeply split between Armagnacs and Burgundians. Henry V seized the opportunity. The result was the most disastrous French military defeat until Napoleons defeat in Russia. Henry destroyed the cream of French nobility at Agincourt (1415). This fundamentally weakened the Feudal system in France. Henry forced Charles VI to acknowledge him as the legitimate heir to the French throne. France was split between the powerful John Duke of Burgundy and the Dauphin, Charles, son of Charles VI and Isabella of Bavaria. Gradually the Dauphin aided by the young peasant girl Joan of Arc built his power. He was crowned Charles VII at Reims, recaptured Paris, and recovered Normandy (1450). Charles then took Guienne (1453). With the the victory of Castillon, France had effectively defeated the English and united the country. It also significantly
The plague or Black Death devestated Europe. It began in Italy and moved rapidly north. The Channel was no barrier. It soon reched England (1348). Along with the pain and suffering there was a significant economic impact. The huge number of people killed significantly reduced the labor force, altering the relationship beteen the nobility and the peasantry.
The plague accelerated a process already underway of breaking down the Feudal System. Serdom was no longer sustasninble. The nobility needed to retain agriultural workers, especially with all the deaths from the plague. Nobels who abused his peasants found that many would run away to the expsnding towns whre jobs were available. There was in the 14th century a quickening of economic life and the impct of the Renaisance began to be felt. The expanding ecoinomic activity meant a grow of towns. This gave increasing importance to the burgess and artisan classes. The revolt of Wat Tyler signaled the end of the Feudal System.
The Wars of the Roses was a drawn out dynastic civil war pitting the House of Lancaster against the House of York. The heraldic shield for the Lancastrians was the red rise and the Yorkists employed the white rose. The conflict arose when both houses could claim descendents from King Edward III and a variety of contributing factors. The ruling Lancastrian king, Henry VI, brought loyal, but unpopular nobles to court. The development of civil unrest. The existence of powerful nobels with loyal private armies. Episodes of mental illness on the part of Henry VI. The War of the Roses was the last medieval war in England, in part because so much of the nobility were killed in the fighting. This strengthened both the monarchy and the gentry and merchant classes. The Tudors emerged at the end of the War and led England into the modern era.
Enhlish merchants began exporting wool themselves in the 14th century. Previously foreign traders marketed English wool. As the century progress the trade in raw wool began to give way to the trade in raw wool. Inflation in the 16th century affected wool prices. Inflation was in part a result of all the gold and silver flowing into Europe from the Spanish conquests in America, some of which reached England through privetering. The expansion of the wool trade meant more land was coverted to sheep reaing or inclosed. This displaced large numbers of tennant farmers was forced off the land, producing class of wandering, beggars. The Elizabethan poor laws were specifically created to address this situation. The seemingly economic shift had significant political consequences. Inflation reduced the real income of the monarchy because much of its income was fixed sums. The country gentry, however, greatly benefited from the inclosures as well as from the purchase of the lands obtained by closing the monasteries, much o which was also coverted to sheep rearing. The gentry began to use Parliament to asertively protect its wealth from royal taxation.
The Renaissance reached northern Europe about a century after it appeared in Italy. It was, however the Elizabethan Age that was the greates period of artistic and intellectual flowering, of course led by William Shakespeare--if it was Shakespeare who wrote those magnificent plays.
It was a time that English audacity and technology at sea laid the groundwork for the Royal Navy and command of the seas. Sir Francis Drake, Sir John Hawkins , and the other "sea dogs" bedelved the Spanish treasure fleet with the Queen as a secret partner. The English then formed overseas trading companies and very modest colonization attempts were made in the Caribbean and North America by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter Raleigh. The long conflict with Spain was rooted in an English hunger for Spanish treasure and a commercial and maritime rivalry, but Philip II's desire to destroy the Reformation in the Netherlands and England was also a very important factor. This struggle culminated in the destruction of the Spanish Armada (1588) but continued long after the defeat of the Armada.
John Wyclif raised concerns about the Catholic Church in the 15th century and translated the Bible into English. The Reformation came to England in the 16th century. Almost independent of the German Refomation was the Reformation in England, but this proved to be crucial because of the future imperial role of England. Political
rather than religious issues were to drive the Reformation in England. It was a Defender of the Faith, Henry VIII that set the Reformation in motion in England.
Henry VIII decided to divorce his wide, the Spanish princess Catherine. He was furious when Pope Clement VII refused to approve the divorce. In response he
rejected papal authority over the Church in England. He founded the Anglican Church and set himself up as head of the new church (1534). While sparked by his
personal life, the break with Rome had many advantages or Henry. One of the most important was the wealth of the Church was now at his disposal. Much of this he
seized by closing the monestarires. Huge quantities of land were in the hands of the monestaries. The first tentative steps toward actual reformation was a liturgy in
English and The Book of Common Prayer. There was some opposition to Henry's Reformtion, but his adroit use of Parliament helped to build popular support for his policies
and set important precedents for the future of Parliament. Henry's lesser known and very devout Protestant son Edward VI played a major role in the success of the Reformation in England. Mary I or Bloddy Mary as she became known to history maried Phillip II of Spain and tried toturn England back to Catholocism but was childless. It was then the protestant Princess Elizabeth who turned England decideldly back to Protestantism, although she tried to moderate the religious issue.
England emerged from the Medieval era during the Tudor era. The Tudor era began with Henry VII (1485). Henry following the War of the Roises restored order to the realm. A reviving economy restored prosperity. Henry VIII inherited a prospoerous country and a solvent exchequer. Henry unified England and Wales (1536). He and his minister Thomas Cromwell moved to centralize the government. Trade and commerce reached new peaks under Henry bringing properity to England. The new Humanist spirit of the Renaissance reached England during Henry's reign. It was Henry who launched the Reformation in England when the pope's refused l to grant Henry a divorce from Catharine of Aragón (the aunt of Emperor Charles V so that he could remarry Ann Bolyn in an effort to have a male heir.
The accession of James I, the first Stuart monarch can be seen as the end of the Medievil era in England (1603). This is only a matter of historical convdenience as the end of Medieval age was in fact a gradual process. James was the son of Mary Queen of Scotts who Elizabeth had executed and he did not know. he was king of Scotland when Elizabeth died and thus united the Scottish and English crowns. The Stuarts who believed in absolute divine right monarchy brought on the greates comstitutional crisis in English history--when led to the rise of parlimentary government.
In the popular mind of course there are two figures that dominate Medieval England. One is King Arthur and the knights of the Round Table. The other is Robin of Locksly and his struugle with Prince John and support for King Richard the Lionheart. There are countless images of these and other Medieval figures, many of which are imaginative rather than accurate depictions.
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