Figure 1.--Here we see Dutch and Indonesian children, presumably in the 1930s before World War II and the Japanese invasion (1942). This is one of the many fascinating photographs from Hein Buitenweg's book Kind in tempo doeloe. The second boy on the left seems to be wearing a sarong, while one of the others is holding up a "slendang" (or "seléndang"), a piece of batik cloth that is worn over the shoulder and is sometimes used to carry things (women carry their babies in a slendang). Some of the boys are wearing a "kopiah", a black velvet cap, worn only by Moslem men and boys. The girl in the front is mixed Indo-European, usually with Dutch citizenship.

Boys' clothing in Indonesia has some similarity to neighboring Malaysia which also has a majority Islamic population. Indonesia was a Dutch colony until independence after World War II. In Indonesia, some areas have a very mixed religious pattern: parts of Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, have a Christian majority or large Christian minorities even among the non-Chinese population. Even on Java, which is predominantly Muslim, Roman Catholics may amount to up to 10 prcent in some areas. Islam, though requiring modesty, has never set rules as to the actual length of trousers, certainly not for men.

History

The history of Indonesia dates back to Java Man (Homo erectus) who after migrating from Africa reached Oceania (half a million years ago). He was followed by the ancestors of the present-day Papuans (about 60,000 years ago) and eventually reached New Guinea and Australia as well (30-40,000 years ago). Finally Malayo-Polynesian groups reached Java and Sumatra (fourth millennium BC). This group is today the primary ethnic group in Indonesia. Trade contracts with India, China and Southeast Asia introduced advanced cultures and religions to what is now Indonesia. Indian traders intoduced both Hinduism and Buddhism. They were largely overwealmed by Islam ibntroduced by both Indian and Arab traders (8th and 9th centuries). Indonesia's abundant spices attracted Portuguese traders who were the first Europeans to reach Asia (16th century). Indonesia was eventually colonized by the Dutch and became known as the Dutch East Indies (17th century). As in the rest of Asia, nationalist stirring in the early 20th century began to challenge European rule. Nationlist figures like Sukarno were inprisoned by the Dutch. Oil made the DEI a valuable colonial assettt and Japan needed oil to continue its war in China. The Japanese at the onset of World War II in the Pacific invaded and occupied the DEI (1942). Indonesian nationalist figures like Sukarno largely collaborated with the Japanese who offered, but never granted independence. The Japanese occupation proved to be a disaster. Largely because the Japanese ceased food stocks, anoyt 4 million people died, largely new to famine. The Japanese demonstrated, however, the fragility of Dutch colonial rule. Nationalist groups launchef a 4-year guerilla war on Java follwing the War. Indonesia officially achieved its independence (1949). General Sukarno dominated the country for two decades a period during which the Communist Party (PKI) grew in strength. Sukarno appears to have been involved in a Communist coup (1965). The coup was supressed by the Army commannded by General Soeharto who launched a bloody campaign to eliminate the PKI and its suporters. General Soeharto replaced Sukarno and dominated Indonesia for three decades. Oil exports became a mainstay of the ecomomy . The Asian financial crisis devestated the Indonesian economy (1997). The economic crisis led to violent riots and other disturbances forced Soeharto to resign (1998). This made possible democratic elections the establishment of a democratic regime.

Religion

Religion as in most Muslim majority countries is an important part of Indonesian life. Religion influence political, cultural and economical trends in the country. The great monotheistic religions (Islam, Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism) are practiced in Indonesia, although Islam is dominant. Indonesia is a very diverse country. And along with the great religious traditions, there are also primitive cultures that practice animest believes in Kalimantan, Irian Jaya, and other locations. There are several unique religious beliefs among some communities in Java, Bali, and Sumatra. Some areas have a very mixed religious pattern: parts of Sumatra, Celebes, the Moluccas, have a Christian majority or large Christian minorities even among the non-Chinese population. Even on Java, which is predominantly Muslim, Roman Catholics may amount to up to 10 prcent in some areas. Religion among other important influenced affecting fashion. Islam, though requiring modesty, has never set rules as to the actual length of trousers, certainly not for men.

Ethnic Diversity

I have never seen any difference between these religious groups as far as attitudes on clothing etiquette are concerned, nor is their any difference between the observant Muslimin and the so-called `orang muslim abangan', perhaps the majority of Indonesian Muslims, who are Muhammedan in name only, observing no more than a token number of religious rituals.

Regional Differences

There are slight ethnic differences however, in the sense that, with Christians and Muslims alike, people on the central islands tend to be somewhat more conservative, leaving more of the skin covered than in some outlying districts.

Chronological Trends

Pre-colonial era

Hindu ivaders from India established kingdoms during the first centuries of the Christain era. Islamic invaders in the 15th century converted most of what is now Indonesia, except Bali.

Colonial era

The first Europeans to reach Indonesia were the Portuguese who then competed with the Spanish to control trade. The Spanish agreed to abandon their claims in 1529 in return for a substantial payment. The Dutch East Indies Company was chartered in 1602 and succeeded in outsting the Portuguese. The Dutch Government after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in Europe, exerted direct rule beginning in 1816. We have only limited information on cllthing trends during the colonia era. There is a page on rompers and a kind of orphanage/miltary school for Eurasian children called the Korps Pupillen

Modern Indonesia

The Dutch East Indies were seized by the Japanese in early 1942, soon after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor impbilizing the American fleet. Indonesian nationalists resisted the reimposition of Dutch colonial rule following World War II. After several years of fighting, the Dutch Government recognized the independence of Indonesia.

We have little information on Indonesian boys clothes during the early independence period. One action taken by the Government was to abolish the Boy Scouts in 19?? and created a nationalist group instead called the Gerakan Pramuka. The Indonesian Pramuka has since begun to rethink their initial rejection of Scouting. Pramuka authorities have been striving to re-establish relations with Scouting for a long time, claiming that their organization from the beginning was just Scouting the Indonesian way, rightfully taking the place of pre-revolutionary Scouting.

Overlying these attitudes is the fact that Indonesia has been catching up very quickly with Western, especially American fashion over the past 20 years. Up to the 1970s, Indonesia lagged behind any number of years. The younger the boys, the more obvious this was as to the number and the length of their shorts. During the last quarter of the 20th century, Soeharto's regime, now infamous for is high degree of corruption, has considerably raised the standard of living of many Indonesians, and by a spin-off mechanism has created a large middle-class that was almost non-existant under his predecessor. These people can afford television and foreign travel more than ever before, and it shows, especially in the cities. Like in the West, with young urbanites `shorts' are now mostly below the knee.

Families

We have very little information about Indonesian familikes at this time. We do note the Van Djik family doing missionary work in the Dutch East Indies on Sumba in 1930.

Personal Experiences

We note some wonderful accounts of childhood in Indonesia.

Frank Neijndorff

Frank Neijndorff has written a lovely account of his boyhood in the Dutch East Indies. It is titled Achterom Gekeken (A Backward Glance). The book gives an account of his boyhood growing up in the Dutch East Indies. Three periods are covered. First: the last years of undisputed Dutch colonial rule (1929-42). Second: World War II anf life under the Japanese occupation (1942-45). Third: the period after the War during which sovereignty over the archipelago was disputed between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Indonesian Republic (1945-49) . The book may be ordered from the author. The author maintains a Dutch-language website.

Hein Buitenweg

Hein Buitenweg published Kind in tempo doeloe, (in Dutch) in 1969. The title in English: "Child in the old days". Tempo doeloe, or tempo dulu, (the way doeloe is spelled now), is Malayan (Indonesian) and means "then" or "at that time", meaning the good old colonial days. The book contains numerous drawings and photographs, many of them very interesting. The little Dutch boys in the drawings are wearing a "tjelana monjet", that means "monkey trousers". It is Malayan (Indonesian) and more or less pronounced as "cheláhnah monyet". That used to be the most practical clothing in the tropics for smaller boys. You notice that few of the European children is wearing shoes or sandals. Buitenweg wrote several books about life in the Dutch colonies in the Far East.

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Created: July 27, 2001
Last updated: 8:39 PM 10/12/2009