Figure 1.--We have not yet found an image to illustrate our Polish history page. We would be very interested in any suggestions readers may have. |
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Geography has played a major role in shapeing Poland. The country's location on the northern European plain has left it open to invasion fro both east and west. And that plain has left the country without easily defenseable frontiers which also left its borders clearly defined. Poland was in the early Medieval period a land without central control, racked by warring tribes. Prince Mieszko I was baptised in 966. Mieszko and Roman Catholic Christianity provided stability and cohesion for the first time. Poland had by the 17th century had become the largest state in Europe. It played a major role in stopping the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe, helping to save Vienna. An elected kingship and the power of the nobility significantly impaired the development of a strong national state. Despite important reforms in the late 18th century, Poland was partioned between Austria, Prussia, and Russia and the Polish monarchy ended. Napoleon was aided by Polish nationalists in his campaigns against Austria and Prussia, but his devestating defeat in Russia, ended any hope of a restored Polish monarchy as the peace was dictated by the very powers that had partioned Poland. Poland did not reappear until after World War I destroyed the three great European empires (Austria-Hungary, Germany, and Russia). It was Poland that first stood up to Hitler and the NAZIs and payed a terrible price. Poland after World War II had to endure a Stalinist dictatorship. While absorbed into the Soviet Eastern European empire, Poland proved to be a very troublesome acquisition. And with the advent of Solidarity, it was in Poland that the Soviet empire began to unravel.
Geography is a major factor in history and Poland is a case in point. Norther Europe from the Urals to the Pyranees is a flat plain with no major geographic obstructions. The northerly flowing rivers, except for the Rhine, do not constiture major obstructions and even the Rhine as Ceasar showed would not stop a determined invader. As a result invading armies have moved back and forth across the flat expanse of northern Europe. Poland's great misfortune in modern times was to be located between the two European titans, Germany and Russia.
Many different peoples have populated the plains of northern Europe including the area of modern Poland. These groups have included the Celts, Balts, Scythians, Huns, Goths, and Germanic peoples. As these were pre-literate peopes, the early histotory of Poland is not well understood.
Slavic tribes began to settle in the area of modern Poland (6th or 7th century).
It was the Polonia tribe that emerged as the dominant group (mid-10th century). There are no real histories of Poland's early development. A chif of the Polonia, Piast, is said to have united the Slavic tribes and name the union Polska (Poland). It is not entirely clear, however, to what extent Piast is a legendary or historical figure. This region ruled by Piast and his sucessors who expanded their domains became known as Wielkopolska, or Greater Poland.
Duke Mieszko I is a Piasts and the first Polish leader for which historical documents exist. He marrying Dabrowka of Bohemia and converted to Christianity (966). Polish historians regcognize this as the birth of the Polish nation. Mieszko's conversion brought Poland into the orbit of Western civilization. Poznan became an Episcopal see. Duke Mieszko allied himself with the German Emperor Otto I and placed his lands under the protection of the pope. Thus Poland became aligned with Western Catholic rather than Eastern Orthodox Christinity.
The Piasts were Poland's first royal dynasty. Duke Mieszko I died (992). He had established control over an area roughly equivalebt to moidern Poland. His capital was at Gniezno. Towns were established at Gdansk, Szczecin, Poznan, Wroclaw, and Krakow.
Boleslaw Krzywousty (Boleslaus the Wry-Mouthed) divided Poland among his sons (1138). He was attempting to maintain the unity of Poland, but it lead to divisions and it made Poland vulnerable to foreign invaders.
Poland had a long history of openess to Jews in a still Catholic Europe seething with anti-semitism. It is unclear when the first Jews arrived in Poland. It appears that some Jews had reached Poland (10th century). The earliest Jews appear to have been merchants rather thn settlers. The first known account comes from Spanish scholars. Spain at the time was the most culturlly advanced, not unrelated to the relatively tolerant atmosphere. Ibrahim ibn Jakub was a Jewish merchant and diplomat from Tortosa,Spain. He writes about a journey east which includes a description of Krakow. It is at this time that a Polish state was beginning to form. Ibrahim's account mentions the first Duke of Poland--Mieszko I (965). Ibrahim was surely not the first Jew to visit Poland, but he was the first to write about it. He does not describe any ill-feeling toward Jews. Presumably other Jews at this time were traveling and tradeing in Piast Poland. Surely some hd begun gto settle in Poland at this time. They would have primarily been involved with commerce and crafts. With the onset of the Crusades in Europe, the Christian West became increasingly hostile toward the Jews in their midst. Country after country banished Jews. Many of these Jews sought refuge in the east, especially Poland. Poland from the 11th century onwards accepted Jews fleeing persecultion in from Austria, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Portugal, and Turkey. In many countries the Jews were persecuted, restricted to ghettos, and often robbed, brutalized, and killed. Several countries including England, Spain, and Portugal expelled them entirely. The Holy Office of the Inquisition was tasked with ensuring that converted Jews ("conversos") were not secretly practing their faith. The Jews in Poland were permitted freedom of religious worship, the right to live in their own communities by King Casimir the Great in the 14th century a dispensation that was reaffirmed by later kings of Poland
Poland is reunifed (1320). Kazimierz III Wielki (Casimir the Great) (1333-70) emerges as one of Poland's greatest rulers. Krakow flourishes as Kazimierz's capital, becoming an important cultural center. The University of Krakow is founded, becoming one of Europe's earliest universities (1364).
The Polish crown was inherited by Louis I of Hungary (1370). His daughter Jadwiga who was only 10-years old inherited the Polish throne (1382). She married Duke Jagiello of Lithuania (1386). This created an alliance with pagan Lithuania. Jagiello converted to Christianity and becomes Wladyslaw II Jagiello, ruling from (1386-1434). The union created an alliance with Lithuania that endured for 400 years. It also increased the territory of Poland making it an important European state. Duke Jagiello as Ladislaus II of Poland dounds the Jagiellonian Dynasty.
Poland-Lithuania faced many foreign powers and fights wars with a diverse list of foes (Teutonic Knights, Tatars, Russia, the Ottoman Empire). The Poles defeat the Teutoinic Knights at the battle of Tannenberg (1410). The Knights accept Polish overlordship (1466).
The Poles manage to expand their kingdom into one of the most powerful states in Europe. The country prospered economically and culturally.
The Renaissance began in Italy and gradually spread north. The Renaissance reached Poland (16th century). Here a factor was the Catholic Church which was affected by the Renaissance. The Renaissance did not penetrate further east to Orthodox Russia. A range of developments came with the Renaissance afecting the ikntelectual life of Poland. Polish becomes the language used by scholrs, replacing Ltin. Polish literature, learning, culture, and architecture flourish. Nicolaus Copernicus (Mikolaj Kopernik) published On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres (1543). He theorizes that that the earth revolved around the sun. His theory is rejected by the Church.
A secession of monarchs conceded powers to the Polish Parliament, or Sejm (lower chamber), became increasingly influential. This was essentially the nobility's resistance to the power of the monarchy. The Sejm unified Poland and Lithuania into one state rather than a personal union of the monarchy--the Union of Lublin (1569). The Sejm also changed the monarchy from family sucession to an election in the Sejm. Thus Poland became known as the Royal Republic. There is no limitation as to the nationality of the monarch meaning that foreigners can compete for the crown. This change proved to be a disasterb for the Polish state. During the period of the Royal Republic, only four out of eleven kings were native Poles. Poland was also affected by the Reformation. The Sejm made one for felicitous decesion, guarantees religious equality (1573). Thus Poland in the 17th century was not torn apart by the religious conflicts like the Thirty Years War that devestated Germany. Roman Catholics, Jews, Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Muslims were able to live together in peace. Under the Royal Republic, Poland's capital is moved from Krakow to Warsaw (1596-1609).
The Royal Republic and the Sjems recklessness resulted in the loss of much of the territitory won by the Jagiellonian kings. Poland under Stephen Bathory and the Vasa Kings (1587-1668) are involved in wars with Sweden and Russia. Poland survived as a result of the Miricle of Czestochowa, but loses larges swaths of territory. The losses were confirmed by the treaties of Oliva and Andrusov. Sweden which had become a major European power invaded Poland from the north. The Tartars and Cossacks in the East strike at the large areas of the Ukraine that Poland-Lithuania had acquired. Poland is ravaged. Historians refer to this as the Deluge (1655-60). Major cities were destoyed, burned and plundered. A weakened monarchy is unable to organize effective armies. Poland's opulation of 10 million falls to about 6 million. The wars reduce agricultural production which beings famine. The bubonic plauge also descimates the country.
One bright spot in Poland's decline is King Jan III Sobieski. He proves to be a gifted miklitary commander and manages to arrest the country's decline. Sobieski gained important military victories against the Turks.
The Great Northern War was the first war of the 18th century. It extended over two decades and was fought in different phases as battlefields and beligerants shifted. The phases of the War cnsisted of 1700-06, 1707-09, 1709-14, 1714-18, and 1718-21. The origins of the War began in the 1890s. At the time Sweden was the dominant power in northeastern Europe. A coaltion (Russia, Denmark, and Saxony-Poland) gradually formed to resist Sweden (1697-99). When Charles XII assumed the throne at only age 15, it seemed an opportunity to deal with Sweden which controlled a broad area of northeastern Europe. Charles V of Denmark had designs on Scania and other territories on northern coast of the Baltic that was once Danish territory. Denmark also wanted to seize the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp which Sweden now controlled. Agustus II of Saxony-Poland wanted Livonia on the Baltic. Augustus was known as Augustus the Strong. He was the Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire. He was elected king of Poland (1697). Possession of Livonia would enable Augustus to significant reduce Swedish commercial influence in the Baltic. Augustus saw the potential of combining Saxony's productive know how with Polish raw materials, but Swedish commercial power impaired Augustus' plans. Russia's dynamic young Tsar had more limited goals. He primarily wanted an outlet on the Baltic. And Sweden possession of Karelia, Ingria and Estonia blocked Peter's westward advancement.
Jan III's reign proved to be only arespite in Poland's decline. The tipping point in Poland's national existence came when the German Elector of Saxony was elected king by the Sjem. This was the beginning of the end of independence. The Sjem elected Stanislaus II (1764). He could remain in power only through Russian support and in the end was forced to concede large areas of weastern Poland to Russia and smaller areas to Prussia and Austria--the First Partition (1772).
The Great Northern War destoyed Sweden as a major power in northern Europe, but it left Poland, a decling state, surrounded by three major European powers--Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Andcthose states wereable to interfere in domestic Polish politics through the Sjem. Poland at one time was a major Euorpean power. The sucess of the nobility in emasculting the monarchy caused a disatrous decline in Polish fortunes. And ultimately the neigboring powers (Russia, Prussia, and Austria) partitioned and annexed all of the former Polish kingdom (1772-95). This Poland disappeared grom the maps of Europe until being revived after World War I. Russia acquired the largest share of Poland, including all of eastern and central Poland as well as Warsw. Prussia acquired western Poland, much of which was renamed West Prussia (formerly Royal Prussia) and Posen. This was Wielkopolska or Greater Poland. Austria acquired southern Poland, including Kraków and Lwów and renamed "Galicia". During and after the Napoleonic Wars, Poland briefly reemerged as the small Duchy of Warsaw under Napoleon and the Kingdom of Poland within the Tsarist Empire.
There was considerable sympathy in wEstern Europe for Poland, especially in France. With the outbreak of the French Revolution and then Napoleon's campaigns, there was hope that Napoleon would create a Polish state. He did set up the small Duchy of Warsaw (1807). But his defeat in Russia ended any possibility for an independent Poland.
The Congress of Vienna that reconstructed Europe after the Napoleonic Wars made some provision for Poland, but left it it under Tsarist control. Most of Poland continued under Russian rule as the Kingdom of Poland in personal union with the Tsar. The Kingdom had its own constitution as Congress Poland. Krakow became a separate republic. Austria regained Galacia. Prussia refained West Prussia and Poznan.
Polish revolutionaries in Congress Poland rise against the Tsar (1830). After some initial success they are supressed by the Tsarist Army (1831). The Tsar suspends the constitution.
Austria annexed the Krakow Republic (1846).
Another insurection in Congress Poland is again supressed by the Tsarist Army (1863). The assaination of Tsar Alexander II brings to the throne his conservative son Aleander III. He launches pogroms against the Jews and initiates a Russification program again the non-Russian nationalities within the Empire (1870s). The attempt to destroy Polish culture in the area of Poland under their control which was most of Poland. Russian is made the official language. Chancellpor Bismarckl persues similar policies in the areas of western Poland under German control. Austrian-Hungary persues different polices alloeing Poles in their area of Poland (Galicia) a degree of autonomy.
Large numbers of Poles emigrate during the late-19th and early 20th century. This included both Jews and Roman Catholics. Moist of the emigrants come from the area of Poland under Russian control. As a result, Poles becomecan important part of the American melting pot. About 4 million out of 22 million Poles emigrated. This appears to be the highest rate of emigration of any national group. About half of the emigrants went to the United States. The lack of economic opportunity and military conscription were primary factors fueling the emigration. fter the Irish and Italians, the Poles were the largest group of Catholic immigrants from Europe. At the time they arrived, however, Poland did not exist. Most Polish immigrants came from Russia and to a lesser extent Austro-Hungary. Polish immigration exploded in the late 19th century. A range of factors were involved, including both economic factors and the Tsarist's regime's steps to promote Russification of the ethnic minorities in the Empire.
The Polish nation once the most powerful in Europe disappeared as a result of three partitions in the 18th century carried out by Austria, Prussia, and Russia with the major share and Warsaw going to Russia. The Poles resisted these empires and in reaction the Russians in particular set out to destroy Polish national identity and Russify the Poles. Polish nationalism was largely preserved by the nobility and the Church. The Polish peasantry was largely a political. Although there was no Polish state, Poles participated in the War as part of the armies of the three empires that had partioned the country. About 2.0 millions participated in the War. Nearly 0.5 million were killed. Polish nationalists were divided in the conflict. Many right-wing Poles led by Roman Dmowski's National Democrats promoted the Allied cause which on the Eastern Front meant the Russians. Dmowski thought that a grateful Russia might agree to autonomy for Poland, perhaps even independence in the future. Josef Pilsudski led the Polish Socialists. He also commanded the Polish Legion in the Austrian Army. He thought that Russia might be knocked out of the War. Austria which had gained Galicia in the partition had been the most willing to allow a measure of Polish autonomy. The poor performance of the Austrian Army on the Eastern Front resulted the Germans assuming command. Marshal Pilsudski refused to take an an oath of allegiance to the Kaiser. German authorities arrested him and imprisoned him in Magdenburg Castle. Russian collapse changed the political situation in the East. America had joined the war. President Wilson promoted the 14 Points wgich included national self determination. With Russia no longer in the war Britain and France came out for Polish self-determination. Although the Germans had achieved their goals in the East reverses in the West changed the political landscape. Revolts broke out in German cities. The Kaiser abdigated and fled to Holland.
German authorities released Marshal Pilsudski from Magdenburg (November 10, 1918). He immeditely headed for Warsaw. He arrived there on the same day the Armistice on the Western Front went into effect (November 11). The Germans had set up a Regency Council in Warsaw. Understanding that a Polish national rising was about to take place, the Regency Council turned to Marshal Pilsudski. The German garrison in Warsaw chose to evacuate by train. The Allies recognized the new Polish state set up by Pilsudski. At Versilles the Poles demanded the boundaries of Poland before the 18th century partitions. The boundaries of the new Polish nation were only established by diplomacy and military engagements (1919-21). Inter-war Poland included a German minority in the west and eastern areas where Lithuanians, White Russians, and Ukranians outnimbered Poles. Poland was devastated by the War. It is believed that about 1 million Poles died during the War. The Poles had to create the institutions of an independent state. President Wilson in his 14 Points promoted national self determination. The Allies in the Treaty of Versailles transfer western Prussia to Poland and a cirridor across land with German populations to the Baltic Sea--the Polish corridor. , thus getting access to the Baltic Sea. There is no way the Allies can determine the eastern border. This is determined by the Polish-Soviet War (1919-20). Marshal Pilsudski's army defeats the Boshevicks and gains control western Ukraine and Belarus under the Treaty of Riga (1923). Poland also seizes Vilnus from Lithuania. This meant that the new Polish state controlled large areas with non-Polish populations. Polish democracy does not last long. Pilsudski estanlishes a dictatorship (1926). The dictatorship continues until his death (1935). It is then maintained by Colonel's Clique. Economic conditions imprives and the country's cultural life flourishes. Poland signs nonagression pacts with both Germany and the Soviet Union (1930s).
T he War in Europe began in 1939 when the German blitzkrieg smashed Poland in only a few weeks. The invasion was made possible the preceeding week when Stalin signed a non-aggression pact with Hitler. NAZI Foreign Minister Ribbentrop and newly appointed Soviet Commissar for Foreign Affairs Molotov on August 23, 1939, signed the Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact. At the time of the signing, British and French delegations were in Moscow trying to reach an understanding with Stalin. He was convinced, however, that they were tring to draw him into a war with Hitler. The two countries which until that time had been bitter foes, pledged not attack each other. Any problems developing between the two countries were to be delt with amicably. It was last for 10 years. The Pact shocked the world and the purpose was immedietly apparent. It meant that Germany could attack Poland without fear of Soviet intervention. Thus after defeating Poland, Germany did not have to fear a full-scale European war on two fronts. What was not known at the time was that there was a secret protocol to the pact which in effect divided Eastern Europe betwen the two countries. This protocol was discovered after the end of the World War II in 1945. The Soviets continued to deny this protocol until 1989. The NAZIs 8 days after signing the Pact invade Poland on September 1, 1939, launching World War II. Although the Soviet's did not enter the War against Britain and France, the Soviets were virtual NAZI allies as they provided large quantaies of strategic materials, especially oil. Communist parties in Britain and France opposed the war effort. The Communist Party in America opposed President Roosevelt's efforts to expand defense spending and assist Britain and France.
World War II began with the German invasion of Poland (1939). The Soviets of course also invaded Poland in 1939, but Britain and France wisely only declared war on Germany. The subsequent Cold War between the Soviets and the western Allies also had its origins in Poland. Stalin's repressive measures in Poland, especially the murder of Polish officers in the Katyn Forrest was revealed by the NAZIs in 1942. Soon Soviet measures against the Polish Government in exile, the creation of a rival Polish Governmrent, and the abandonment of the Polish Home Army in Warsaw (1944) were some of the major issues which began the separation of the Soviet and Western Allies even before the end of World War II. Poland was a major issue at both Yalta and Potsdam. Many critics hav charged that tht President Roosevelt in particula abandoned Poland to the Soviets. [Olson and Cloud] The simple fact is, however, that the Red Army destroyed the Whermacht. If it had not been for the relentless pressure of the Red Army in the East, D-Day would have never been possible. The Soviet domination of Poland and Eastern Europe after the War was a simple reflection of that basic fact. America and the Western Allies could not have rescued Poland from the Soviets without war. In the end it was the Polish people who would prevail. It was in Poland with Solidarity in the 1980s that the Soviet empire began to unravel.
Poland was a major issue at both Yalta and Potsdam. Many critics hav charged that tht President Roosevelt in particula abandoned Poland to the Soviets. [Olson and Cloud] The standard right-wing cant is that Americ won the war, but lost Poland. The simple fact is, however, that the War was never fought to save Poland. The war was fought to defeat the NAZIs. Many of FDR's criticics did not even want to go towar to save Britain--let alone Poland. Also the War was not won by America. It was won by America and Britain and their allies and the Soviet Union. In fact, it was the Red Army destroyed the Whermacht. Eight out of every 10 Wehrmacy soldiers killed during the War were killed on the Eastern Fron by the Soviets. If it had not been for the relentless pressure of the Red Army in the East, D-Day would have never been possible. The Soviet domination of Poland and Eastern Europe after the War was a simple reflection of that basic fact. As it was not America and Britain that won the war alone, America was not in a position to impose a peace settlement and boundries in Eastern Europe. America and the Western Allies could not have rescued Poland from the Soviets without war.
In the end it was the Polish people who would prevail. It was in Poland with Solidarity in the 1980s that the Soviet empire began to unravel. Poland because of its geographic location became the epicenter for the Cold War. For without a compliant Communist Poland, a the Communist East German regime was untenable. Unfortunately for the Soviets, Poland proved the most difficult Eastern European satellite country to control. It is interesting to specuale as to just why Poland proved so difficult for the Soviets to dominate. Poland was the only Eastern European satellite that had until the 18th century been a major European power. With the Polish partitions of the late 18th century, the Polish nation disappeared from the maps of Durope. What did not disappear was the Polish Catholic Church which became the repository for Polish nationaism for three centuries. Stalin spoke derivisely of the Vatican, asking how many divisions the pope commanded. In fact it was a Polish pope in the 1980s that would play a critical role in the unraveling of the Soviet empire Stalin constructed in Eastern Europe.
The Communist Government has increasing economic problems. Inflation runs out of control. Prices rise by 250 percent (1990). %, with incomes dropping by 40%. Poland first fuly democratic ekldction is won by Solidarity leader Lech Walesa (November 1990). He encounters both economic and and political problems. The economy is left in a shables after four decades of Sviet rule. Pollution is a major problem. Many Communuist era factories are ineffucent and unable to compete with western industry. Poland is forced ton undergo a painful progress of economic readjustment. Poland's National Assembly adopts a new Constitution (1997). Poland joined the European Union as the economic reforms begin the bear fruit. Poland also joins NATO.
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