Figure 1.--The illumination of Bibles contibued to be practiced in the Renaissance, Alexander VI was one of the two great Renaissance Borgia popes. No history of the Papacy is complete without an account of Alexander coloful pontoficate. Alexander and his Uncle Calixtus III, the other Borgia pope, were enthralled with the drama of the liturgy, but in fact had no real religious convictions. Here Alexander is seen saying mass. Note the altar boys or are they choristers. I am not sure which. While no religious, Alexander insisted on observing the feasts and demanded the cardinals attend church services.

The primacy of the papacy in the Roman Catholic or Western Church is based on authority conveyed to the apostle Peter by Jesus who told him that hecwould be the rock upon which the Church would be built. Peter was the first bishop of Rome. Subsequent popes were primarily bishops of Rome in a Curch that was not centralized in any real way. This of course made in difficult for the Roman Empire to effectivdely supress the early Church. The Roman Empire itself was, however, highly centralized. Even with limited reak authority, the Bishop of Rome had enormous influence in an empire centered on Rome. The first pope who attempted to aggresively exert his authority as pope was Victor I (189-198). Without the authority of the state, such authority was limited. Victor attempted to secure uniformity in Church practice and took issue with the differeing practices in the East such as the date for Easter. The first clearly defined powerful pope was Leo I (440-61). Leo attempted to establish a system of papal vicariates through which Roman church oractice could be inforced. While information on may early popes is sparse, by the time of Gregory I the Great (590-604) we know much more about the papacy. The papacy at this time had extensive land holdings in North Africa, Sicily, and Gaul. Gergory not onlt managed to preserve these land holdings throgh the tumultous period of babarain invasioins, but laid the ground work for the conversion of the pagan tribes and the authority of the papacy as new Feudal states and principalities arose in the West.

Chronolgical Trends

Saint Peter is generally considered to be the first pope because Christ designated him as his most important desciple. Very little is known, however about the early popes. Leo played a major role in establishing the prestige of the papasct when he managed to disuade Atila from sacking Rome. As Europe emerged from the Dark Ages, the papacy endured a very difficult period. One source estimates that about a third of the popes selected from 872-1012 died violently, often at the hands of successors. The Church attempted to regularize the selection of popes by creating the College of Cardinals (1059). This innovation was not as significant as might be expected. The popes even after the creation of the College continued to be chosen from the same nobel Roman families from which earlier popes were selected. The papacy reached the zenith of its power at the beginning of the second millenium. Popes promoted crusades to the Holy Land. They struggled with empeors and kings over tempral matters. The pope had begun as the bishop of Rome came to claim almost imperial power, claiming both spirtual and temporal power over all Christendom. The Church was rent by the Great Schism (1303-1417). The split in the Church was resoved by the Council of Constance which also acted to stuffle dissent in the Church, an important step leading to the Reformation. Thus as Europe was being stimulated by the Renaissance, the Church and the papacy was trending toward limitations on thought and inquiry.

Individual Popes

Most students of history have a much better understanding of national monarchies than the papacy. This is in part there have been so many popes, many of extremely short pontificates. This is because the history of the papacy is longer than any country or states. Even more importantly, the nature of the papacy means that most popes come to office as elderly men. Many national monarchs come to the throne as children. Some of have reigns of over 50 years. This is not the case of popes, As they come to the pontifacte as elderly men, there reign for relatively short periods. The average potificate is less than 6 years. This affects both the outlook and temperment of the men who serve as well as increasing the importance of Vatican institutions over individual popes. Here we do not want to survey each pope, but we do want to provide a thumb-nail sketch of the most important popes who have played major roles in the events discussed in our HBC website.

St. Peter

The theory of the papacy is based on St. Peter who is reputed to have been the first bishop of Rome. Historians debate the evidence establishing Peter's presence in Rome after Christ's crusifiction. From St. Peter, the Catholic Church bases the authority of the papacy on a apostolic line of succession. The ultimate authority comes from the New Testament Gospel of Matthew who quotes Christ as saying, "You are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church."

Anicetus (155-66)

Anicetus is te first pope for which much tangible evidence exists.

Victor I (189-198)

The first poontif who attempted to aggresively exert the authority of the papacy was Victor I (189-198). Without the authority of the state, such authority was limited. Victor attempted to secure uniformity in Church practice and took issue with the differeing practices, especially those in the East, such as the date for Easter.

Callistus I (217-22)

Pope Callistus I was faced with an anti-pope, Hipolitus. Disputes between the two caused such disorders in Rome, that authorities shipped both off to the tin mines in Sardinia.

Leo I (448-61)

The first clearly defined powerful pope was Leo I (440-61). Leo attempted to establish a system of papal vicariates through which Roman church practice could be inforced. Leo turned back Atilla and the Huns. This achievement conveyed emense prestige on the papacy. It is thought that Atilla planned to return the following year, but he died unexpectly, ending the Hun threat to Rome.

Gregory I (590-604)

Geregory I is better known as Gregory the Great. Gregory was a friend of St. Benedict and the first pope to be considered monkish. Gregory approved the charter for the Benedictines, the first important monastic order. It was Gregory who dispatched missioaries to England which had been coquered by pagan Anglo-Saxons. Gregory is probably the most important popes of the first millenium. He called the pope, "Slave of the Slaves of God".

Leo III (795-816)

Leo III is one of the most important of the early medieval popes. He was from humble origins. This created a problem because the nobel Roman families thought that the papascy was reserved for those of nobel birth. They deposed Leo. A mob almost put out his eyes and tore out his tounge. He appealed to Charlemage who went to Rome and restored him in the papacy. It was there that Leo crowned Charlemagne. This began the relationship between the pope and Holy Roman emperor that dominated European affairs for several centuries.

Stephen VII (896- )

Many papal scholars believe that Stephen VII was probably the most mentally unbalanced of all the popes. It was Stephen who was responsible for what has become known as the cadaver Synod. He ordered that his predessor, Popr Formosus be disintered, dressed in full papal regalia. He was ten tried for a range of offenses. After he was found guilty, the corpse was uncerimomiously chucked into the Tiber. A few months later, Stephen was deposed and stangled to death.

John XI (931-36)

John XI is an era of decline for the papacy is considered by many to have been the most scabdalous of all the popes. He is believed to have been the illegitimate son of Pope Sergius III and Marozia, woman from an important RomNN family. Before the creation of the College of Cardinals, ties to important Roman families were how most individuals became popes.

John XII (955-963)

John XII was another scandalous pope. He was one of many popes who were not selected on the basis of his religious training and experience. With the support of his and other prominent Roman families, John became pope at only 18 years of age. Pope John was much more interested in parties and entertainments than eclesiastical matters. He became a scandal in western Christendom. He is sometimes referred to as the Christian Caligula. Emperor Otto I wrote him, "Everyone, clergy as well as layity, accuses you, Holiness, of homicide, perjury, sacrilige, incest with your relatives, including your sisters." The Emperor eventually deposed Pope John.

Gregory VII (1073-85)

Gregory VII was the papal name of the great teacher and Church thinker Hildebrand. Gregory was one of the most influential of all popes. Gregory played a major role in the Church's insistance on the celibacy of the clergy. we are not sure just what motivation of Gregory was, but the Church's motivation was land. The Church by the 11th century had acquired huge areas of land throughout Europe. In some countries, the Church owned one-quarter, and in some cases even more, of the arable land. Important churchmen were using some of that patrimony to provide for their children. Celibacy would mean that it would be for ever retained by the Church. Gregory also begand the aggressive persuit of papal dominance over temporal princes. The issue had risen before, but never so publically and powerfully as that between Gregory and the uncrowned Emperor Henry IV over investiture. After Gregory excommunicated him, Henry had to come to Gregory as a pentinent and stand in sackcloth and barefoot in the snow at Canossa (1077).

Urban II (1087-1099)

The Byzantine patriarch had sought assistance from Gregory VII, but he had been too involved in the Investiture Controversy to consider support. It was Urban who launched the Crusades. This marked the beginning of the era of greatest influence of the papacy. Never before or sence has the Church been so important or so respected as a moral force nor the influence of the pope so influental and respected throughout Christendom.

Gregory VII

In an era when popes and emperors struggle over supremecy, Gregory wrote, "Who can doubt that the priests of Christ are to be considered the fathers and masters of kings and princes and all the faithfull?"

Alexander III (1159-81)

Aklexander was one of the strongest of all popes. Orlando Bandinelli was born in Siena (11??). He became a noted teacher and drafter of cannon law. He was elected Pope Alexander III (1159). It was Alexander who compelled English King Henry II to do public pennannce for the murder of Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas |à Becket. He also continued the struggle with the Holy Roman (German) Emperors Emperor Frederick I (Barbarossa) knelt before Pope Alexander III to recognize the spiritual supremecy of the papacy (1177). Alexander for the Church law requiring a two-thirds vote of the College of Cardinals to elect a pope.

Weak Popes

Following the death of Alexander III, there were five popes in 10 years, all elderly with little energy.

Innocent III (1198-1216)

Innocent III is often described as the greatest of the medieb=val popes. He was the youngest pope up to the time. Born in 1160 he was only about 38 years old. He was the first pope since Alexander III who reached the Latteran Palace with any vigor. Innocent was the guardian of the young Emperor Frederick II. The papacy under Innocent and the five popes who suceeded him approached the role of a unified European monarch more than any other popes. This was because of weaknesses in the Empire and the fact that as a result of the Fourth Crusade, Constantinople was in Latin hands and the papacy suppressed the Greek rites. He significantly expanded the powers of the papacy and developed strict rules for clerical conduct. Even so the moral authority of the papacy, the core power of the pontif, had declined from that Urban held when he launched the crusades. That was illustrated in the struggles that Innocent and his successors had with the Emperor Frederick. One historian explains, "The church in the 13th century was extending its legal power in the world, and losing its grip on men's consciences. It was becoming less persuasive and more violent." [Wells, p. 579.] It ws Innocent who launched the terrible crusade against the Cathars. A huge army was assembled and as many as 2 million peole may have been killed.

Clemet IV ( -1268)

Period of Indecession (1268-71)

After the death of Clemet IV (1268) the College of Cardinals had difficulty deciding on a new pope. Part of the problem was that the cardinls were enjoying the luxurious accomodations provided at Viterbo. Eventually the city fathers locked them in a place and even removed the roof. They were even threatened with starvation. Eventually they chose Gergory X.

Gregory X (1271?- )

Boniface VIII (1294-1303 )

Boniface VIII is often described as the last of the grat Medieval popes. It is during his papacy that the Renaissance began in northern Italy. He attempted to rescue the papacy from French influence. The French under King Phulip IV invaded Italy and seized Boniface whom Philip had tortured. Once freed he returned to renouncing Philip. It is unclear if he died from the eralier torture or was murdered by French agents, but Boniface died as he was preparing to excommunicate Philip.

Clement V (1305-14)

Clemment V was French, the personal choice of King Philip. After his election, he did not even go to Rome, but assumed office in the fortified city of Avignon. This was a city in southern France that belonged to the Papal See. This began the Babylonian or Avignon Captivity of the papacy. Philip helped build far more luxurious quarters in Avigon than were available in Rome. As a Frenchmamn, Clement lso would have had to contend with hostile Roman mobs. The Church in Avignon was more efficently able to conduct business, a factor in the Church becoming increasingly rich.

Gregory XI (1370-78)

Gregory XI was deeply religious. He was the last French pope. Even so he brought the papacy back to Rome (1377). This created great difficulties. The former popes had made many appointments of French prelates. On his death (1378) the Great Schism developed.

Urban VI (1378-89)

Urban VI was elected after the death io Gregory XI (1378). Anti-French mobs in Rome concerned about the possibility of the papacy returning to Avignon threatened the French prelates if they did not elect an Italian. This caused considerable dissent within the Church, especially on the part of French prelates once they returned to France. Urban made no attempt to reconcile the French prelates. In fact he had six cardinals tortured and put to death. Urban claimed, "I can do anything, absolutely anything I like." Contending factions feared for their lives. The result was the Great Schism. The anti-Pope Clement VII set up his court in Avignon. Each had their adherents and their own College of Cardinals. Urban was supported by the Emperor and the monarchies in England, Hungary, Poland,and northern Europe. The King of France supported Clement as well as French allies (Scotland, Spain, Portugal, and German princes hostile to the Emperor). The split continue for some time. When ever a vacancy ovcuurred in Rome and Avignon, a replacement was selected rather than moving toward union.

Alexander V (1409)

Eventually the two colleges of cardinals united and chose one single pope--Alexander V (1409). The problem was that the two reigning popes in Rome and Avignon refused to step down. So Western Christendom now had three popes!

Martin V (1417- )

The breach in Western Christendom was finally resolved at the Council of Constance (1417). It was perhaps the most democratic gathering in the Church's history. It included both the lower clergy and the laity. The Great Schism ended with the election of Martin V (1417). The esisting pope and anti-pope either resigned or were removed from office. While democratic, the Council of Constance took steps that would severly contrain doctrinal discussion within the Church. They condemned the already dead John Wycliffe (England) and was responsible for the burning of John Huss (Bohemia). While the Great Schism was ended, the supresion of both Wycliffe and Huss, churchmen of great honor and learning, sewed divisions within the Church that would in the next century lead inexorably to the Reformation.

Alexander VI (1492-1503)

Rodrigo Birgia like other early Borgias was born in Spain, at Xatvia near Valencia. He was adopted by his maternal uncle who became Pope Calixtus III. This cleared the way for a spectacular career in the Church evebntually becomin a cardinal and an admositrator in the Vatican. Rodrigo lived a luxurios and licentious life, fathering many children, among them Ceasre and Lucretia Borgia. Through his uncle's patronage and substantial bribes virtually bankupting himself, he was elected pope (1492). Alexander is one of the more controversial popes, both for his life style and the substantial historical debate over his actions as pope. Alexander and his Uncle Calixtus III, the other Borgia pope, were enthralled with the drama of the liturgy, but in fact had no real religious convictions. Here Alexander is seen saying mass (figure 1). Note the altar boys. While no religious, Alexander insisted on observing the feasts and demanded the cardinals attend church services. He proved to be among the most imprtant of the Renaisance popes. He regained control of the Papal States which had been largely lost to local tyrants. It was Alexander who issued the Papal Bull dividing the world between Portugal of Spain, drawing the line with only the most scanty of geographical knowledge. He excomunicated Saonarola, am aestetic priest in Florence, paving the way for the return of the Medici. It was Alexabnder who established the Index Expurgatorius ereting the right to review books for heretical teachings. Alexander ploted to establish the family as as secular princes. His oldest son Juan may have been killed by another son Ceasre. Some believe that Ceasare way the inspiration for Machiavelli's The Prince. Alexander is said to have extorted money from nobels and eclesiastic alike, even poisoning some. Alexader died, however, before Cesare was able to establish a principality for the family. Cesare's sister Lucretia was even more notorious than her brother, although no one really knows how much truth is in the many lurid tales written about her. Lucretia maried Duke Alfonso I d'Este of Ferrara.

Pius III (1503)

Pius III was highlt respected as an honest and kind man known for acts of charity. He was also old and not in good healthy when elected by the College of Cardinals. In fact his pontificatec lasted only 26 days. It was marked by Cesare's Borgia's efforts to recover his position, ireperably damaged by the death of his father Pope Alexander VI. Pius' reign is notable principally for its brevity. This was by no means an isolated incident, although few pontificate's were as brief. But as most pope's were elderly men when elected, many lasted only a few years. This was a critical weakness of the papacy.

Julius II (1503- )

Julius was another of the great Renaissance popes.

Paul III (1534-1549)

Alessandro Farnese (1468-1549) was born in Canino, Latium which at the time was part of the Papal States. He was the eldest son of Pier Luigi Farnese, Signore di Montalto (1435-1487) and wife Giovanna Caetani, descended from the Caetani family. Pope Boniface VIII was also a family member. He called the Council of Trent (1545). He was one of the few Popes to have openly fathered children before his election through his relationship with Silvia Ruffini. One of his sons was Pier Luigi who he created Duke of Parma. The other children were Ranuccio Farnese and Costanza Farnese. Paul was unable to contain the Protestant Reformation and his secular outlook was a factor in fueling the Reformation.

Paul IV (1555-59)

Pope Paul IV played an important role in the Protestant Reformation. This was in part because he and other popes of the era continued to persue the papacy's tempopral interests in the Papal States even when it conflicted with the campaign against Protestahntism. Pope Paul IV (1476-59) was a Neopolitan. He was an esestic monk wih a rigid outlook. He initiated reforms which did much to purify the Catholic clergy. He is perhaps best known to history as the pope who insisted that fig leaves be painted all over Rome to cover the senuous art work of the Renaissance--including Micelangelo's work in the Sistine Chapel. But it was his ability to hate that is his primary legacy, helping to weaken the Catholic cause. There was quite a long list of those he hated and that list was not dominated by Protestants. High on his listvwere the Jews. He coinfined the Jews in the Papalm States in ghettos and forced them to wear easy to spot yellow hats. He hated the independent thinkig of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits). He also hated the Spanish monarchy which threatened the temporal holdings of the papsacy--the Papal States. This was most reflected in the Spanish Hapsburg control of Naples which bordered the papal states in the south. Then the Spanish gained control of Milan to the north. It was the Hapsburgs, Charles V and his son Philip II that were the most poweful princes suporting the Catholic cause, yet Paul saw them as enemies. [MacCulloch] He even quarled with Mary Tudor who was doing her best to return England to Catholocism. Paul's outlook and rigidity was a factor in complicating any unified Catholic reaction to the Refornation.

Pius V (1566-72)

Pope Saint Pius V (1504-72) was born Antonio Ghislieri and came to be called Michele Ghislieri. He was elevated to the papacy (1566). He ws pope for only a brief 6 years, but had a huge impact on the future of the Church and the papacy. His principal contribution was the implementation of the Council of Trent and in formulating the agressive Catholic Counterreformation. He also helped standardize the liturgy. His papacy represented asea change from that of Paul III. The resulting centralization of authority and control of the Church led to an uniformity that in the long run left Catholicism illprepared to compete with Protestantism. One resukt was the need the Church feltvto adjudicate matters of science. Notably as scientific thought and duscivries began to transform Europe, mostt of the important work came from Protestant norther Europe. Pius was created a saint of the Roman Catholic Church.

Paul V (1605- )

Galileo published his Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger), describing the observations that he had made with the new telescope (1610). These observations refuted the prevalent cosmology based on ancient texts ans Biblical sclorship. Pius because of the way Galileo presented his findings took it as a personal affront. Pius V had created the prescedent of the Churchb ruling on scientific findings. The perscecution of Galileo became a defining moment in the relationship between the Catholic Church and science.

Pius XI (1922-39)

Pope Pius XI finally came to terms with the Italian state. He signed a concordat with Mussolini who then recognized the Vatican as an independant state.

Pius XII (1939-58)

The College of Cardinals in early 1939 fully recognized that war was coming. They chose a diplomat as the man most suited to oversee the Church. There was great concern for Pope Pius XII during World War II, escpecially after Germany occupied Rome (1943). Pope Pious was generately considered to be a compassionate man of peace during the War who did what he could to protect Jews and others. There were tributes to him after the War. This view continued for many years after the War. This began to change with various authors began to Pious' record, especially is failure to speak out more forcefully against the Holocaust. There is some validity for this charge. Some might argue, however, that this may have done little good and brought attacks on both the Church and Catholics. The Church charges a campaign of vilification. The role of Pope Pious XII during World War II has been intensly debated by historians. Some charge that he was a weak, church bureaucrat, more concerned with protecting the treasures of the Vatican than the opressed people of Europe. The issue is very complicated There are reports of Pope Pius intreauging with the British and German Generals (1940). The Pope did hide 5,000 people when the NAZIs began to round up Roman Jews (October 1943). The controversy about Pious continues today. At best his resonse was timid at worst some writers view him as virtually complicit. [Corwell] Those who criticise today certainly do so from the safty of a more secure world. Another historian refutes many of the charges against the Pope, pointing out his many statements criticizing the NAZIs even before he became pope. Therewere also many instances of Pope Pius XII protecting Jews. [Dalin]

John XXIII (1958-63)

One of the most beloved modern popes was Pope John XXIII. He was elderly and overwight, but had a warm personality and wonderful sense of humor. He was the first pope with media savy. When asked how many people work in the Vatican, he answered "about half". Perhaps John's greatest contribution was a shift in emphasis for the Church. The Church was seen as shifting from a codemning to a loving spirit. John set in motion the greatest reforms of the Church in 1,000 years. Pope Johb XXIII set convoked Vatican II (1962-68), the most important religious convocation of modern times. One of the outcomes was the Catholic Church absolved Jews from responsibility for the deat of Christ. The Church also dropped the centuries-old claim that Jews were rejected by God.

Paul VI (1963-78)

Pope Paul VI was the first pope to fly. He travelked widely earing the appelage of "the flying pope". He was the pope that was faced with the daunting responsibity of implementing Vatican II. The changes were very wide spread and required considerable to implement into actual Church practice. Paul is controversial because of his encyclical on birth control (1968).

Jon Paul I (1978)

John Paul II (1978-2005)

John Paul II was the first Polish pope. He was born Karol Jozef Wojtyla in the small town of Wadowice near Krakow during 1920, shortly after Poland was reserected as a result of World War I. There were in the city 8,000 Catholics and 2,000 Jews. Wojtyla was called "Lolek." He was the second son of Karol Wojtyla Sr. who was a retired army officer and worked as a tailor. His mother was Emilia Kaczorowska Wojtyla, a schoolteacher of Lithuanian descent. The family were strict Catholics, but unlike many neighbors were not anti-Semitic. A close friend was Jerzy Kluger, a Jewish boy. Kluger later played a role in Vatican's recognition of Israel. Karol not only had Jewish friends, but was intreagued by Judiasm. He reasoned as a youth that anti-Semitism was pantently absurd as Jesus and his appostles wee all Jews. Karol lost his mother at a young age and his father as a youth. He studied to be a priest during World War II at a time that the NAZIs attacked the Church and other Polish institutions. As a young priest he faced Stalimist repression in Poland after the War. Later as a Polish prelate he led the fight for a church at Nova Huta. His success in confronting Communism in Poland was largely respinsible for his elevation to the Papacy. This proved to be a key event in the Cold War. His Pontificate played a key role in the collapse of Communism in Poland. Pope John moved the heel the breech between Jews and Christians. He prayed at the NAZI Auschwitz Death Camp when he visited his native Poland (1979). He recognized Israel (1994) and on a visit to the Holyland left a note of contrition for Christian persecution of the Jes at the Wailing Wall (2000).

Benedict XVI (2005- )

The College of Cardinals chose Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger to replace John Paul II. Cardinal Ratzinger chose his papal name to be Benedict XVI. Cardinal Ratzinger was a close associate of JOhn Paul II. The commentary on his selection have generally focused on his conservatism. He is the First German pope in about 1,000 years. Both Pope Benedict and John Paul were caught up in World war II, but being from Germany and Poland their experiences were very different. Joseph's childhood experiences in his native Bavaria are very interesting and we do not yet have the complete account. Sources

Collins, Roger. Keepers of the Keys of Heaven.

Cornwell, John. Hitler's Pope.

Dalin, David. The Myth of Hitler's Pope.

MacCulloch, Diarmaid. The Reformation: A History (Oxford University Press, 2004), 750p.

Wells, HG. The Outline of History: The Whole Story of Mankind (New York: Doubleday & Company, 1971), 1103p.

Created: January 15, 2004
Last updated: 4:24 AM 4/17/2009