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Nationalist groups have been dominated by NAZI Germany and Fascist Italy, in part these were state-supported groups that banned competing groups. Many pro-NAZI or ultra-antionalost groups were also formned in countries neigboring and then occupied by Germany in World War II (1939-45). There have also, however, been smaller groups in other countries as well. We have begun to compile information about nationalist youth groups in several individual countries. mostly but not entirely in Europe. Many but not all of these groups are associated with the rise of Fascism during the 1920s and 30s and the Wolrld War II-era. We have found information and photographs about these groups difficult to acquire, in part because particaipants and parents destroyed uniforms, badges, membership records, and photographs after the Allied victory. The Hitler Youth organization in Germany was the largest group and as a result a great deal of information is available. Information on some of the smaller groups is very limited.
There must have been a variety of nationalist youth groups that were formed in the 1920s after World War I, but we have little information about them at this time. The Heimwehr (similar to the German Freikoros) appears to have had a youth movement. The Hitler Youth movement had an Austrian organization, but was banned by the Government. Even so, it operated sureptiously. After the Anschluss, Austria was annexed into the Reich. German law immediately took affect and all youth organizatioins except the Hitler Youth were banned. There was no separate Austrain Hitler Youth. Austrian boys participated in the Hitler Youth program. After the Anschluss all Austrians except Jews became German citizens.
The most important youth movement in Belgium has been the Scouts, although the movement has been split along nationalist lines. There have also been uniformed youth groups sponsored by political parties. This has been especially true of right-wing parties and Flemish nationalist groups. The Belgian political situation before, during and after World War II was extremely complicated, and incidentally still highly controversial. During the German World War II occupation there wwere NAZI-oriented right-wing youth groups in both Flanders and Walonia. After the war the the Vlaams Nationaal Jeugdverbond (Flemish National Youth Organization) was organized to promote an independent Flemish state.
Bolivia appears to have had a nationalist youth movement, but we have few details at this time. It was organized through schools and amounted o pre-military training. A German boy living in Brazil after World war II has provided us some information.
Bulgria was compeled to join the Axis after Hitler launched World War II. Ther was a Fascist movement in Bulgaria, but not as strong as in neighboring Hungary and Romania. We know nothing at this time about any nationalist youth group.
The NAZIs after invading Yugoslavia (April 1941) partionioned the country. Crotia was created as a new puppet state. Croatian separtists had sought to create an independent state even before the invasion. They received support from Musssolini's Fascist Government in Italy. After the invasion, Croatia became the most compliant of all the pro-NAZI regimes. A Italian prince was installed as king, but the regime was controlled by the Ustashi. The Croatia Utashi launched perhaps the most deadly of all the World war II Holocausts. The Ustashi not only targeted Jews and Gypseys, but also Orthodox Sebian Christians in Croatia and Bosnia. The NAZIs included Bisnia in the Croatia state. We understand that the Croatians founded a youth group known as the Eagles, but we have not yet been able to find information about the group. We would be very interested in any information about the Eagles that HBU readers might be able to provide.
We have no information on Czechoslovakian natioanlist youth groups at this time. There may have been some organized on national lines such as Czech and Slovak. German boys in the Sudetenland wanted to join the Hitler Youth, but the organization was banned in Czechoslovakia. Some of these boys would travel to Germany to participate in Hitler Youth events in the Reich. There were incidents when Czech customs officials found their uniforms when they returned to Czecoslovakia. After Munich (October 1938) and the subsequent NAZI occupation of Czecoslovakia (March 1939), I do not note any nationalist pro-German youth groups being organized in the NAZI Protecorate of Bohemia and Moravia (eastern Czechoslovakia). Such an organization is unlikely as the NAZI goal was to supress Czech nationalism. This may have been different in Slovakia (western Czechoslovakia) which succeeded from Czechoslovakia and allied itself with NAZI Germany, but we have no actual informaion at this time.
The German offensive against Denmark and Norway was launched April 9, 1940. The small Scandinavia country was occupied within hours. There was virtually no resistance. Denmark at the time had several pro-NAZI parties, not because there was a lor of NAZI sentiment, but because there was no one individual leader, like Vidkun Quisling, to dominate the movement. In addition, NAZI policy was basically to incorprate Denmark into the Reich and thus no real interest in entrusting political power to the Danish NAZIs.
HBU has little information on nationalist English youth groups. I think there have been realtively few, in part becaise of the importance of Scouting and the Boys' Brigade. I believe the small Mosley English-NAZI group tried to organize a youth movement, but it was of no real importance. A least one miodern group, the Rangers, have been formed because of the middle-class orientation and complicated beauracracy of Scouting.
The authors have no information on non-Scout nationalist boys uniformed groups in France during the early 20th century. Some groups were organized by Vichy authorities during the World War II German occupation.
The Wandervogel was formed November 4, 1901, and became Germany's most important youth
groups. It many ways they were similar to the Scouts stressing hiking and camping. There was also a strong participant in sport, much more so than the Scouts. The Wandervogel was partly a manifestation of the perceptible mood of boredom and restlessness appearance of Wilhelmian
Germany was little more than a facade which concealed latent tensions beneath the surface. German youth during the 1920's were involved in an incredible diverse number of mostly small youth organiztions, perhaps as many as 2,000 such groups. Upon the seizure of power by the NAZIs in 1933, these groups were swept into the Hitler Youth movement.
The NAZIs during World War II conceived of several formations which were open to boys from all Nordic countries (Denmark, Flanders, the Netherlands, and Norway). One of these was the Germanische Reichsschulen (German National Schools). These schools were a joint effort of the Hitler Youth and SS. Three political military schools were set up: Valkenburg (naer Maastricht in Holland), Heijthuijsen (Holland), and Quatrecht (near Ghent in Belgium).
Greece like neigboring countries was swept up in the 1930s with highly nationalistic sentiment. Fascist political parties fed on this sentiment. We know of one natioinalist uniformed groups, the Ethniki Organosi Neolaias (EON--National Organization of Youth) which operated from 1936-40. This was a Fascist organization sponsored by the filo-fascist dictator. There are a lot of interesting things about this. First the dictator fought against the Fascists
in World War II. There a political explanation on that. EON was very popular and boys and girls from democratic and even communist families joined, there is also an explanation on that.
Hungary had a right-wing Fascist organization and the country joined the AXIS in World War II. We have no, information, however on youth groups.
Most of the newly independent countries emerging from colonialism in the 1950s and 60s embraced Scouting. Highly nationalist Indonesia took a different approach. The new Indonesian republic banned Scouting in 196?. The Government formed the highly nationalistic Gerakan Pramuka. The Indonesian Pramuka has since begun to rethink their initial rejection of Scouting. Pramuka authorities have been striving to re-establish relations with Scouting for a long time, claiming that their organization from the beginning was just Scouting the Indonesian way, rightfully taking the place of pre-revolutionary Scouting.
There have been many Irish nationalist groups. The most famous of course is the Irish Revolutionary Army (IRA). While many young people--especially older teenagers have participated in the IRA, we are not sure to what extent younger boys did. Certainly the sons and younger brothers of IRA members knew about the IRA and served as lookouts and messengers. The IRA for much of its history has been a outlaw or secret organizxation and thus has not had uniforms. We do not know if there was any uniformed nationmalist group for younger boys. The Nationalist organisations (like the Cumman na Gael) also had youth sections - no real uniform though. These were absorbed into the Scouts of Ireland after independence.
Saddam Hussein's Bath Pary has an extensive youth movement. Children are enrolled at age 5. There are five levels of membership which continue into the teen years. The failure of a child to participate actively in the organization can be dangerous for his or her parents. The parents also have to be careful about what they say at home, least the child innocently repeat some to youth group leaders that he does not understand is dangerous. We have, however, been able to find little published information about the Bathist youth organization. The only government agency that we can identify at this time is the General Union of Iraqi Youth. We have noted press reports on something called the Asfald Saddam or Sadam's Lion Cubs. This is not a mass organization like the Hitle Youth, but rather a small elite group. There may be as many of 8,000 of these boys. They appear to be primarily orphans who have been raised to be fanatically loyal to Saddam Hussein. The childrn of regime officials are not recruited to this groyp as the children of NAZI officials were to the Hitler Youth. Some of them may have been recruited to the Fedayeen Sadam, fanatically loyal Bath Party cadres who have been used as an internal security force.
Israel has its equivalent of a nationalist youth group. It is the GADNA. A
All high school and junior high students are required to participate-boys and girls alike. GADNA has a khaki uniforms. They take training and engage in paramilitary exercises. GADNA has not replaced and does not try to replacing Scouting in Israel. It is more a program like the Junionr Officer Training Corps in America. It is a program designed to prepare youth for military service. Israel as a result of the hostiility of neighboring countries has compulsory military service. HBU knows very little about GADNA at this time. Hopefully our Isreali readers will provide some information about the program.
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Benito Muscolini's Italian Fascists seized power in 1922. They established a comprehensive youth movement for all ages from 8 years old on. Italy was the first European country in which the Fascists seized power and the first to set up a comprehensive national youth movement. After consolidating power, the Fascists in 1927 banned Scouting. This became the pattern in totalitarian countries. Unlike the Scouts, the Italian Fascists had no international orientation. One element of Fascist ideology was ravid nationalism and intolerance toward other national and racial groups.
Japan had nationalist youth organization--"Seinen Dan". "Seinen" means "youth" and
"Dan" is for "Group". "Seinen Dan" was originally established in 1880 to promote social activities for youth in the new modernizing Japan. I do not know much about it. I think it was not political, and it aimed to assist young people adjust in mind and manner to rapidly changing new circumstances of the post Meiji-Ishin (Meiji Restoration). I believe the organization was disbanded after World War II.
Lebanon has an active Scouting movement. Scouts have a positive image both because of the activities it offers boys and girls, but also because of the important relief work it has carried out duting emergencies like the Cicil War. As a result, Hezbollah puts a Scouting facade on its youth movement, the Imam al-Mahdi Scouts. The movement, however, has a program more similar to a Fascist group like the Hitler Youth.
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg did not have a strong pro-NAZI faction at the onset of World War II. Many Germans lived in Luxembourg and an imitation Hitler Youth was founded in 1936 when non-German youth were not allowed to enroll in the Luxembourg branch of the Hitler Youth. German policy after Luxembourg was seized in 1940 was to incorporate it in to the Reich.
The Netherlands borders Germany and the Dutch are related to the Germany linguistically and ethnically. Many Germans lived in the Netherlands. The Germans in World War I respected Dutch neutrality and the Dutch after the war gave scantuary to the Kaiser after he abdicated (November 1918). Quite a number of right-wing Fascist parties were formed in the inter-war era, many had youth wings. The principakl youth group, however, was the Boy Scouts (de Nederlandse Padvinders). Strangely for susposedly nationalist parties, several advocated union with Germany. There was some support for these groups even before the German invasion in 1940. The Germans did not respect Dutch neutrality in World War II. Interest in the NAZI-approved party increased markedly in the early years of the War when many thought that the Germans would win. Participation in the principal Fascist youth movement, the Jeugdstrom, also increased.
HBU does not know of any uniformed boys' youth groups, except the Boy Scouts, in Norway before the NAZI invasion of April 1940. The Norwegian Government in fact had banned the wearing of political uniforms in 1935 so political parties could not organize uniformed youth units. This changed almost over night after the German invasion when a a virtual riot of adult uniforms appeared. This was especially the case after Hitler officially asppointed Vidkun Quisling "Minister President". The Quisling and the NAZI occupation authorities organized a youth group and tried to recruit older boys for the war effort. Scouting was banned. Few Norwegian boys, but in 1941 Scouting and other youth groups were banned and all Norwegian boys had to join the Nasjonal Samling youth movement, the Umghird.
We have no information on Poland at this time. We do not know if there was any nationalist youth movement before World war II. As far as we know, Scouting was the principal youth movement in Poland. There may have been nationalist youth groups in Poland before World War II. We note boys wearing uniforms that were not Scouts. Many politcal groups in European countries sponored youth groups and we believe this occurred in Poland, but have no actual information at this time. Hopefully our Polish readers wll help supply some information here. After the NAZI invasion (September 1939), Poland was partiononed. Large areas of Poland were annexed to the Reich. A Government General was created centered in Warsaw, but the Germans could not find compliant Poles to serve in the administration. As the NAZIs wanted to destroy Polish national identity, there was no nationalist youth movement created as was the general NAZI pattern in many other countries. . Poland was also invaded by the Soviet Union which at the time was cooperatring with the NAZIs. The Soviets introduced the Young Pioneers in their eastern occuoation zone. The NAZIs quickly overran this area when they invaved the Soviet Union (June 1941).
António de Oliveira Salazar, seized control of Pprugal (1932). The Salazar regime was aithoritarian which gradually took on Fascist trappings, especially after the advent of the Spanish Civil war (1936). The Goverment issued a decree establishing a nationalist youth group--the Mocidade Portuguesa (Portuguese Youth) (May 1936). We believe the Boys Scouts were banned, but do not have detaols at this time. Prof. Marcelo Caetono was apointed the group's leader (1940). Their motto was 'Deus, Pátria e Família' [God, Fatherland and Family]. There were four echelons according to age: lusitos ( 7 to 10 years), infantes (10 to 14), vanguardistas (14 to 17) and cadetes (17 up). Their uniform consisted of a green shirt with badges on the left side of the breast, beige shorts and black shoes. A reader writes, "I have never come accross them in Portugal proper but I have seen some boys (black and white) in Angola during 1967 and 1968. They all had short pants, but I believe at the time that in metropolitan Portugal the older boys wore longs." Caetono who led the Mocidade since 1940 who became the acting Portuguese head of state after Salazar was incapacitated by a stroke (1968), The Mocidade were abolished on the very first day of the Socialist Revolution (April 25, 1974). A book Mocidade Portuguesa: Breve história de uma organização salazarista (1976) published after the Revolution seems to give a good account of the history and the activities of the "Mocidade".
Both Fascism and Communism grew in importance after the Depression began and the NAZIs seized power in Germany. This affected the attitudes of toung people and extremist groups began to organize with youth auxileries. Scouting remained a largely apolitical oasis among the increasingly devisive Romanian society. Romanian was becoming ungonvernable King Carol II seized control of the Government and adopted dictatorial powers (1937). The Government established the National Renaissance Front to replace the fractous parliamentary system. The Government closed down the Scouting movement and other youth groups to create the Străjeria--a single national youth group as a unifying step. There were both a boys and girls division. Romania was forced by the NAZIs to enter the Axis and eventually World War II as a German ally.
Slovakia succeeded from Czechoslovakia just as the NAZIs were preparing to seize the country (March 1939). A compliant pro-NAZI puppet state was created. We do not know at this time if the pro-NAZI regime created a youth group. Slovakia is today an independent country, having succeeded from Czechoslbvakia in 199? after the end of the Cold War in what is known as the Velvet Revolution. I know of no nationalist youth group in modern Slovakia.
The Afrikaner youth movement is called the Voortrekkers. The penkops are
their junior branch, comparable to cubs for scouting. There were named after the boy soldiers who fought the British during the Boer War.
Generalisimo Francisco Franco after defeating Republican, antil clearical forces, set up a totalitarian state and created the Falange political party to goven the state. The Falange created its own uniformed youth group. HBC at this time, however, has only limited information on the Falange youth group and the Falange's policy on the Scouts.
HBU does not know of any Swiss nationalist groups. That does not mean that none were organized, but we know of none at this time. Switzerland is a multi-national country and it would probably be difficult to organize a natioinalist group which is usually based on a common national identity. Italian Balilla units may have been organized among Swiss Italians and Hitler Youth units among the German Swiss. Or perhaps the Swiss Government banned such groups. HBC has noted NAZIs cultivated German populations in all neigboring countries. The only exception in the historical record os Swizerland, although this may simply reflect HBC's limited information on Switzerland. HBC has no authoriative information at this time to indicate whether or not there was interest among German and Italian Swiss or if the Government adopted any policy on such organizations. In fact, the Scouts with their international orientation proved a more suitable youth organization for the Swiss. A Swiss reader reports, "I do not know of any such nationalist youth groups or Hitler Youth/Balilla units in Switzerland. I'd say that what HBC said is quite correct. Even if there were in Switzerland some crazy people to share Hitler's ideas, they did not impact on the general Swiss people and government, both being since centuries really proud of their independancy and neutrality. One of the aims of Fascist organizations like the Hitler Youth was to prepare boys for the military. Obviously was not the case in Switzerland where youth movements were dominated by the Scouts under more or less direct supervision of churches." HBC must add that although most people now view Hitler's ideas as crazy (perhaps evil is a better word), this was not a universally held idea in the 1930s.
With the disolution of the Soviet Union, the Pioneers unlike Russia, have not entirely disappeared in Tajikistan. A new group has grown out of the old Pioneer organization. It is substantially changed and no longer has a Communist, but now a nationlist ideology. The group is known as the "Vorisoni Somoni". This translates as Somoni Inheritance. One has to realise that in ancient times King Somoni rules this area. This king and historic period is
part of the Tajik cuklture. There are statues to King Somoni and his image is printed on the bank notes. The Somoni Ineritance is thus a natural choice for the name of a Tajik youth group. The members wear a kerchief in the Tajik national colors of red, white and green. It
has also been renamed. Children who are in the former Pioneer Corp wear the Kerchief as part of their school uniform. Here is a photograph from school 21. We do not know a great deal about the group. Membership in the Pioneers was virtually mandatory. We do not know to what
extent Tajik children belong to the new King Somoni Inheritance.
King Rama VI in May 1911 created the Wild Tiger Corps (Sua Pa). It was a nationwide, paramilitary corps. The purpose of the Wild Tigers was four-fold. It was intended to give all Thai exempted from service in the regular armed forces, notably all middle and high level civil servants, an opportunity to receive military training. Second, the Corps was expected to promote unity in the society by bringing men from diverse backgrounds together in one organisation. Third, the Sua Pa, like the British Volunteer Force that the King had
observed at first hand in Britain and after which he had modeled the Wild Tigers, would help maintain law and order in the countryside and provide reserve troops in the event of war. Finally, in keeping with its namesake, the Sua Pa Maew Morn of the army of King
Naresuan (1590-1605), the Corps would provide advance scouts for the regular army, seeking out the enemy, pinpointing his whereabouts and reporting on his activities. The King made a special point of emphasising that the Wild Tiger Corps was meant to assist,
and not replace, the regular armed forces.
A variety of nationlist groups have been formed in America. Some of the precurosrs to the Boy Scouts like the Sons of Daniel Boone or the Woodcraft Indians were highly nationalistic. There were limitations to the formation of Europen-like nationlist groups , however, because of the great diversity of the United States. Nationalist groups thrived where there was a common ethnic idenity. This of course did not exist in America. Thus what was occurred was the organization of ethnic groups. The strongest such group was German Americans, a small group of whom was inspired by Hitler's NAZI New Order. Various groups were formed which by 1936 had vecome the German-American Bund> The Bund organized a youth section and ran summer camps during the 1930s and early 40s. Hitler wanted a strong NAZI orienterd German group to organize in America, but he wanted it to be done quietly. He did not want to sir America from isolationism. The Bund led by Fritz Kuhn did all it could to make headlines, even holding a mass rally in New York' Madison Square Garden. The Bund's activities frightened many Americans and inspired a series of Congressional investigations. The Bund was disbanded when Hitler declared war on America after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor. Contemporary right-wing groups such as the Klu-Llux-Klan, Aryan Nation, and others often involve children, but not as a separate, uniformed youth group.
We have very limited information about Yugoslavia. There were a range of nationalist organizations, but this is very complicated because many were ethically based and not national organizations. I believe there were also organizations with religious and political foundations and well as groups with over-lapped these various elements. Building a natinalist youth organization in such a divided country would have been difficult, but there were many different youth groups in the various constiuent parts of Yugoslavia. After the German World War II invasion, Yugoslavia was partinioned between Germzany, Italy, and their Balkan partners. Croatia became a NAZI ally. Presumably they had some form of NAZI youth group. Ther may have been other Fascist groups formed in the other areas occupied Yugoslavia. The Hitler Youth was established in the area of Sklovenia annexed to the Reich.
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