Figure 1.-- |
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The ongoing conflict betwwen Moslems and Hindus dated back to Mongul invasions of the 16th century. Many Indians converted to Islam under Mongul rule. There were economic advantages. Some Mongul emperors forced conversion. In addition, Islam offered relief from untouchibility. Areas of northern and eastern India in particular became strongly Muslim. After the decline of Mogol Empire tensions developed between Muslim and Hindu communities. This was kept in check by the British Raj, altjhough the British also played on this division in administering India. The current conflict dates from the independence of India after World War II. Lord Mountbatten was sent to India by Britain's post-War Labour Government to be the last Viceroy and oversee independence. India's independence was achieved by the Congress Party. Ghandi through the Congress Party had promoted the idea of a secular Indian state in which people of all faiths could live harmoniously. Muslims were an important part of the Congress Party coalition. In the negotiations over independence, Muslim leader Jenna decided that Muslims needed a separate state--Pakistan. Britain granted India independence August 15, 1947. Inter-communal rioting in 1947 resulted in hundred of thousands of deaths if not million as Muslims fled from India and Hindus from Pakistan--one of the largest migrations in history. Thousands more died in violence as these collums foraged or food and were set upom by villagers also inflamed by religious and national zealotry. The two collumns also fought with each other. The flash point for armed conflict between India and Pakistan was Kasmir. The formula agreed to by Congress and the British was that the aristocratic rulers were allowed to chose whether to join India or Pakistan. This was a complicated process as colonial India was composed of 565 separate states. Pakistan expected Kashmir to affiliate with their country because of the majority Muslim population. Local extremists supported by Pakistan attempted to seize control. Kashmir's Hindu maharajah decided to affiliate with India and pleaded for military support. The result was the first India-Pakistan War. United Nations Resolutions in 1948 and 50 called for a referendum, but India has never allowed this. Pakistan since 1989 has supported a violent insurgency in Kashmir. The conflict has been further complicated in the 1990s. Both India and Pakistan developed and tested nuclear weapons. Hindu nationalists have defeated Congress in Indian elections. Since the 9-11 attacks, the Pakistani Government has reassessed its support of terroism in Khasmir, but Islamacists in Pakistan object to this and other actions by the country's secular Government, especially cooperation with America on the war against terrorism.
The ongoing conflict betwwen Moslems and Hindus dated back to Mongul invasions of the 16th century. Many Indians converted to Islam under Mongul rule. There were economic advantages. Some Mongul emperors forced conversion. In addition, Islam offered relief from untouchibility. Areas of northern and eastern India in particular became strongly Muslim. After the decline of Mogol Empire tensions developed between Muslim and Hindu communities.
The Britsh and French contested control over India in the 18th century. The issue was largely settled by the dominance of the Royal Navy. British victories in Indua diring the Seven Years War essentially ousted the French from the sib-continent. Gradually India expanded its control over all of India as well as modern Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Burma. The British accomplished all of this with an incredibly small military force. This was in part because they were largely replacing Muslim rulers who India's Hindu massess saw as juat as foreign as the English. India was by far Britain's most important colony--the jewel in the Crown. Tensions between Hindus and Muslims were kept in check by the British Raj, altjhough the British also played on this division in administering India.
The Indian struggle for independence began in earest after World War I (1914-18). Mahatma Gahandi inspired the Indian people in an unorthodox independence movement led by the Congress Party. Congress included both Muslim and Hindu leaders. Largely through Ghandi's influence it was a non-violent movement. The independence movement led by Mahatma Ghandi and the Congress Party gained considerable strength during the 1920s and 30s.
The British by 1939 were having increasing difficulties governing India. The Congress Party while refusing to support the War efort, decided not to actively oppose Britain or to take advantage of British defeats in the early stages of the War. Some Indian POWs taken by the Japanese were recruited by anti-British nationalists and formed the Free Indian Army. Under Subhashchandra Bose, they fought alongside the Japanese in Burma. Overall, India played an important part in the Allied war effort. Indian units fought with other British Empire forces in both the Pacific and European theaters. About 2.5 million Indians (including modern Pakistan) were mobilized. Some Indian units played important roles in the early stages of the War before Britain had fully mobilized and American joined the War. The Fifth Indian Division ngaged the Italians in the Sudan ans subsequently the Germans in the western Desert. The Indians played a major role in quelling a pro-NAZI revolt in Iraq. A successful revolt would have cut the British off from the Iraqi oil fields whigh would have undermined the naval and land defenses of Egypt and the Suez Canal. the Division along with eight other Indian Divisions fought in Burma. After the Japanese surrender, the Indian forces then disarmed the Japanese forces in Malayia and Java. India provided important bases for the recinquest of Burma and delivering supplied to the Chinese. India also was a source of food and other supplies for British and Commonwealth forces as well as the British homefront.
The current conflict between India and Pakistan dates from the independence of India after World War II. Lord Mountbatten was sent to India by Britain's post-War Labour Government to be the last Viceroy and oversee independence. His wife Edwina played an important role in partnership with her husband, a rather complicated relationship. India's independence was achieved by the Congress Party. Ghandi through the Congress Party had promoted the idea of a secular Indian state in which people of all faiths could live harmoniously. Muslims were an important part of the Congress Party coalition. Here both Ghandi and Nehru played central roles. The two admired each other and were close friends, but did not agree on many issues. In the negotiations over independence, Muslim leader Jenna decided that Muslims needed a separate state--Pakistan. Britain granted India independence August 15, 1947 and two states were creates--Undia and Pakistan. Inter-communal rioting in 1947 resulted in hundred of thousands of deaths if not more than a million. There was no accurte accounting. Muslims fled from India and Hindus from Pakistan--one of the largest migrations in history. Thousands more died in violence as these collumns foraged or food and were set upom by villagers also inflamed by religious and national zealotry. The two collumns also fought with each other. The British have been criticised for leaving India before key aspects of independence, such as the facr of the princely states had been finalized. At the time, however, the Indians were pressing for independence.
Te Raj included colonial India was composed of 565 separate states. At the time of independence there was no agreement as to which country each princly state would join.
The formula agreed to by Congress and the British was that the aristocratic rulers were allowed to chose whether to join India or Pakistan. It was assumed that their choice would be goverened by both geogrphy and the religion of the majority of the population.
Obviously a pribcipality in the middle of India with a majority Indian popiulation would join India and prinipalities in Pakistan with a majority Muslim population would join Pakistan. This formulae worked well, although some of the Maharajas wee reluctant to give up their power and perogatives.
Kashmir is one of the most beautiful places on earth. It also served as the flash point for armed conflict between India and Pakistan. Kasmir was the only exception to the peaceful resolution of the princely state problem. It was located between Pkistan and India. And it had a Hindu Mahraja, but a largely Muslim population. Pakistan because of the majority Muslim population expected Kashmir to affiliate with their country because of the majority Muslim population. About 75 percent od the population was Muslim. It is a fair statement that a majority of the people in Kashmir favored joining Pakistan.
The conflict over Kashmir led to the first India-Pakistan War. Kashmir's Hindu Maharajah wanted to retain power and instead of affiliation with either India or Pakistan demanded autonomy. Local Muslims attempted to seize control. The degree of Pakistani involvement in the initial uprising is disputed, but Pakistan used the revolt as a pretext to intervene. The Muslim uprising and Pakistani intervention caused the Hindu Mahraja to finally decide to affiliate with India and pleaded for Indian military support. The Indian Government in what seems to have been the generally agreed principles of partition, India intervened and drive out the Pakistani troops. Kashmir was incorporated to India, but Pakistn refused to accept this. United Nations Resolutions in 1948 and 50 called for a referendum, but India has never allowed this.
Pakistan and the United States signed a mutual defense agreement (1964). The United States was primarily concerned with allies to resist Communism in Asia. The Pakistanis were more concerned with Kashmir and India. The security agreement with the United States provided acess to modern arms. Pakistia broke the ceasefire and Pakistani armour units drive into Kashmir. The Pakistanis calculated that the Kashmir population would rise up to support them. The Indian Army was, however, not going to fight the Pakistani's in Kashmir. Indstead they launched a massive invasion of Pakistan itself. The Pakistanis had to pull units out of Kashmir to oppose the Indian offensive. Another ceasefire was arranged (September 17, 1965). Eventually an armistace on the basis of the status quo ante bellum. The Soviets helped negotiate the arrangement.
Pakistan at the time of independence was a two part state. The two wars over Kashmir were fought largely between West Pakistan and India. India did not attack East Pakistn which hd been created in Bengal. The Begalis sid not share the hostility toward India that was prominent in West Pakistan. The one factor tha had held East and West Pakistan together was fear of Indian expansion. After the fitst two Indo-Pakistan wars, it became clear to Bengalis that India did not harbor territorial ambitions in Bengal. Thus after 1965, Bengalis claiming West Pakistani economic exploitation began agitating for greater autonomy. (Pakistan complained with some justification that India did not allow elections in Kashmir, but itself refised to allow electiins in East Pakistan.)
Popular unrest forced Pakistan to hold general elections, the first such elections since independence (1970). The elections were won by the Awami League which had led the agitation for greater autonomy. The Pakistani Government refused to turn power over to a civilian governmented headed by the Awami League. West Pakistan invaded East Pakistan to maintin control (March 1971). The Pakistani Army proved excedingly brutal and millions of Bengalis fled into India. India itself did not intervene, but provided military equipment and supplies to the Bengali resistance. Pakistan decided to force a conclusion and launched a preemtive air strike on India (December 3, 1971). A third round of fighting ensued. The Soviet Union used its veto in the U.N. Security Council to ensure rthat there would be no ceasfire until India achieved its military objectives. The war led to the separation of East Pakistan and the creation of a new state--Bangladesh.
Pakistan since 1989 has supported a violent insurgency in Kashmir. The coinflict has been further complicated in the 1990s. Both India and Pakistan developed and tested nuclear weapons. Hindu nationalists have defeated Congress in Indian elections. Since the 9-11 attacks, the Pakistani Government has reassessed its support of terroism in Khasmir, but Islamacists in Pakistan object to this and other actions by the country's secular Government, especially cooperation with America on the war against terrorism.
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