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"The hottest places in hell are reserved for those who, in times of great moral crisis, maintain their neutrality."
-- Medieval Italian poet Dante Alighieri
While fighring raged in Europe with the NAZIs and Soviets as allies over running country after country, a conflict also was underway in America--a debate between the isolationists and interventonists which deeply divided the nation. America was the only major nation not yet committed to the War. The outcome of the debate in large measure would determine the fate of the Free World and Western Civilization. There has always been a strong isolationist streak in American political life. Americans separated by two great oceans have since the Revolution seen ourselves as different and apart from the rest of the World. From the beginning of the Republic, President Washington warned of entangling foreign alliances. For much of our history, Britain was seen as the great enemy of American democracy and of Manifest Destiny. World War I was America's first involvement in a European War and the United States played a critical role in winning that War. Had the Germany not insisted on unrestricted submarine warfare, in effect an attack on American shipping, it is unlikely that America would have entered the War. Many Americans during the 1920s came to feel that America's entry into the War was a mistake. There was considerable talk of war profiteering. Many were
determined that America should avoid war at any cost. This feeling was intensified with the Depression of the 1930s and the country's focus was on domestic issues. With the growing military might of a rearmed Germany, war talk in Europe began. Isolationist leaders opposed any war. Others such as, Charles Lindbergh, thought that America could not win a war against Germany's vaunted Luftwaffe. Many not only opposed American involvement, but even military expenditures. Against this backdrop, President Roosevelt who did see the dangers from the NAZIs and Japanese militarists, with political courage managed to not only support Britain in its hour of maximum peril, but with considerable political skill managed to push through Congress measures that would lay the ground work for turning American into the Arsenal of Democracy, producing a tidal wave of equipment and supplies, not only for the American military, but for our Allies as well, in quantities that no one especially the Axis believed possible.
While fighring raged in Europe with the NAZIs and Soviets as allies over running country after country, a conflict also was underway in America--a debate between the isolationists and interventonists which deeply divided the nation. America was the only major nation not yet committed to the War. The outcome of the debate in large measure would determine the fate of the Free World and Western Civilization. After the fall of France (June 1940), most of Europe was left in the hands of the two great totalitarian powers: Stalin's Soviet Union and Hitler's NAZI Germany. Britain might be able to hang on, but no longer had the capacity to challenge either, let alone both. Only America with its vast resources and industrial might was capable of liberating Europe and savibng western civilization. to us with the hindsight of history this is obvious. To many Americans at the time it was not. 【Olson】
There has always been a strong isolationist streak in American political life. Americans separated by two great oceans have since the Revolution seen ourselves as different and apart from the rest of the World. From the beginning of the Republic, President Washington warned of entangling foreign alliances. President Adams ruined his chance of reelection by keeping America out of the Napoleonic Wars. President Jefferson became unpopular in his second term by cutting of trade with Europe to keep America out of the Napoleonic Wars. President Madison finally entered the War and the results were near disaster. Gradually the principle of staying out of European Wars became a acceptted principle of the American Republic. And it was undoubtedly in America's best interests to do so. While European countries poured ememse treadure and blood into fighing each other in terrible and often pointless dynastic wars. America's energy was devoted to developing a new country and productive economy. Even in the 19th century, there were dangers. Napoleon had planned to seize Louisana and only failed because his troops got bogged down in Haiti and fied in droves from tropical diseases. Incredibly, none of the War Hawks who took America to war in 1812 asked themsekves the basic question, 'What if Napoleon won in Europe? The basic equation changed in the 20th century. Imperial Germany might dominate most of Western Europe as a result of World War I (1914-18). And two decades later, Hitler actually conquered most of Western Europe. Incredibly, many Americans did not compreghend the dangers posed. `
American entry into World War I was agreat departure from traditional American isolation from Eureopean diplomacy. World War I proved to be a vast killing field, destroying a generation of European men. World War I was America's first involvement in a European War and the United States played a critical role in winning that War. Had the Germany not insisted on unrestricted submarine warfare, in effect an attack on American shipping, it is unlikely that America would have entered the War. The failure of the great Spring 1918 German offensice meant that Germany could not force a military conclusion to the War. The arrival of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) meant that the Allies could.
As discussed above, the United states from the outset of the Republic has string isolationist tradition. It was addition established by Gerorge Washingon and John Adams. World War I was the first deviation from that tradition. And as far as most Americans are concerned it did not go well. Over 0.1 million Americans were killed and 0.2 million wonded. The cost was enormous. And our Allies did not want to pay off their war loans. And despite all the sacrifice, the War did not achieve the goal President Wilson promised. And then the charges that the war was the work of war prifiteers and industrialists--the so-called Merchants of Death. The result was the widespreadreemergence of Isolationist thinking, stronger than before the War. And it was not just official American foreign policy. It emerged in poplar culture as well. Mrs. Burnett's book Little Lord Fauntleroy (1885) was an inditment of the British aristocracy compared to the innosence and purity of Americans. his was a theme that wiuld be reported over and over in popular cilture. And we see movies like 'My pal the king' (1932) with a premise of how corupt and unjust Europe was and how pure America was, in this the most famous white-hated cowboy of all time. This kind of popular culture helped to convince Americans that we should never again get involved in a foreign war, especially a European war with the Germans. This is part of the explanation as to why the Isoationist Movement was so strong. Also explains why there was some minimal spending on the Navy while the Army was allowed to wither. The Navy and the Atlantic Ocean wre seen as sufficent to protect America from the corruption and vicitudes of Europe. And unlike the Army we see very positive films about the Navy like 'Here comes the Navy' (1934) with big stars including Jimmy Cagney.
This feeling was intensified with the Depression of the 1930s and the focus on domestic issues. The greatest calamity to befall Americans in the 20th century was the Great Depression--a worse calamity than even two world wars. The Depression began with the Wall Street stock market crash in October 1929. Soon business were going under and Americans were losing their jobs. All Americans were affected. Eventually about one-third of all wage earners were unemployed and many who kept their jobs saw their earrings fall. President Hoover who had engineered a humanitarian miracle in Europe during World War was unable to break away from the mindset that the Government should not intervene in the economy. President Roosevelt was elected by a landslide in 1932. He brought emery and new ideas to Washington and the Federal Government initiated programs that would have been rejected out of hand only a few years ago. Roosevelt was willing to use the Government to solve economic and social problems besetting Americans. The people loved him, electing him to an unprecedented third and fourth term. The propertied class or "economic royalists" as he called them, hated him. Roosevelt's program was called the New Deal and the many programs initiated help change the face of the United States: Social Security,
the Tennessee Valley Authority, rural electrification, the Works Progress Administration (WPA), protection for union organizers, and many others. The conservative-dominated Federal Courts struck down WPA, but many New Deal programs endure to this day. The great novel to emerge from the Depression was John Steinbeck's The Grapes of Wrath which addressed to problems of rural Americans and the dust bowl. Urban Americans of course also suffered. While the New Deal brought relief to many desperate Americans, the Depression lingered until orders for war material from Europe began to flood into America in the late 1930s. The
rest of the world was also affected by the Depression. Britain and France also struggled with the economic down turn. The response in Germany and Japan was totalitarianism, militarism, and finally
war.
Many Americans during the 1920s came to feel that America's entry into the War was a mistake. After the rise of the NAZIs in the 1930s and Germany's rearmament, it became increasingly clear that Europe was moving toward another war. There was considerable talk of war profiteering. Many were determined that America should avoid war at any cost. This feeling was intensified with the Depression of the 1930s and the country's focus was on domestic issues. The anti-war sentiment in America and the memories of the men lost convinced many Americans that America must not get involved in any future European war. These sentiments combined with long-standing American isolationism resulted in the passage of a series of Neutrality Acts. These Acts prohibited for United States companies to trade with belligerents. As a result, while the Fascist powers aided Franco's Falange in Spain, the Spanish Republic could not even buy arms in America. The show of German arms in Spain, especially Luftwaffe bombings of Spanish cities terrified many. With the growing military might of a rearmed Germany, war talk in Europe began. This fueled the desire of many Americans to remain neutral. Isolationist leaders opposed any involvement in a European war and clashed with President Roosevelt who increasingly saw the need to confront the NAZIs and Japanese militarists. Some like Charles Lindbergh, thought that America could not win a war against Germany's vaunted Luftwaffe. Many not only opposed American involvement, but even military preparedness and military expenditures were strongly opposed in the Congress.
American peace groups attempted to negotiare an end to World War, but the Europeans were uninterested. The German were especially dismissive of the American efforts, in part because many officials did not look the United States with its mixed ethnic and racial population as a real nation. The British were more willing to at last humor the Americans as they understood the imprtnce of the Americans. With the end of the War, pace groups were optimistic, believing that war could be oulawed. American pacifists helped draft the constitution (Covenant) of the new League of Nations. Many peace groups were shocked that the U.S. Senate refused to ratify the Versailles Paece Treaty which included the provision for the League. In fact the American pacifist movement was split on the League. The pacifist movement developed into a pro-League or conservative faction and an anti-League or radical faction. Conservative peace groups included the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, the World Peace Foundation, the League of Nations Association, and the Woodrow Wilson Foundation. These were groups that emerged out of the Northeastern estabishment and were well funded. The Carnegie Endowment was founded with a bequest of $10 million in United States Steel Corporation bonds (1910). U.S. Steel was on of th major American corporation and had nenefitted from war contracts which in the eues f nore radical pacifist brought their credibility in question. The World Peace Foundation was founded with a $1 million endowment (1910). The Woodrow Wilson Foundation ammaseed conrtributions of almost $1 million for its foundtion (1924) . The radical peace organizations were less fixated on the Legue, some even opposed Amerucan menbership. And they were much less apt to work in quiet wys for peace. They were less well funded, but had more grassroot suport. Many emerged out of the Midwest where isolationist views were also strong. They were newer groups, organized after the War. There were something like 40 national groups. Local groups wre much more numerous. Some had small, less stable memberships. Some did not last long as finabces were shaky. There were changes of names. Objective varied, but all were commited to a peaceful world. The groups included: the American Committee for the Cause and Cure of War, the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom, the National Council for the Prevention of War, the Committee on Militarism in Education, the Fellowship of Reconciliation, the Parliament of Peace and Universal Brotherhood, the Peace Heroes Memorial Society, the War Resisters' League, the Women's Peace Society, the World Peace Association. Women played a major role in most of these groups anf this of coure was the same time that that women got the vote with the rtification of the 19th anendment and emerged as a major force in American politics (1919). Women were especially important in the more radical peace groups. American attitudes during the inter-War era were in part pacifism, but and even stroinger sentiment was a desire to disassociate from Europe which was seen as the source of endless political strife. Pacifism was an elemement in isolationist sentiment in America. Isolationism and pacifim were different movements, but there was substantial over lap. The Congress launched a major investigation designed to prove that American arms manufacturers had help involve the United States in the War. It is ironic that the industry that would save Western civilization was during the inter-wars year was being being investigated for disloyalty by Congress. The Committee became known as the Dyes Committee led by Congressman Martin Dyes. After a huge investigation, no evidence was found to justify the charges. Public opinion in America remained staunchly against involvement in World war II until Pearl Harbor. During the War, some 43,000 Americans refused to fight for reasons of conscience, Some were recognized as conscintious objectors. Others were not. About 12,000 men served in Civilian Public Service, 6,000 were sentenced to prison terms, and 25,000 served in the military as noncombatants, often in dangerous roles like medical corpsmen.
President Roosevelt was inagurated shirtly after Hitler rise to powe in Germany. And he was deeply duisturbed with rhe cgharacter of Hitler and the NAZis. And his view ionkly darkened as the NAZI regime created one ourrage afteranother. The Presiden's major concern, however, was the Deopressiin and effiorts to end it in America. Hitler used military spending as a way bto fight the Deoression. This was not a pimary policy usedvby President Roosevelt and the New Dealers. Many New Dealers were on the pacifust side of opublic policy. Here President Roosevelt was not anong those who saw World War I as a great mistake. Now while he was not able to launch a major rearmament program, he made important decesions. President Roosevelt of all the great World War II leaders interfered less with his military commanders than all the others. That said, he made a major decision in the 1930s that profoundly affected the outcome of the War. He understood that the world was a dangerous place and Japanese agressioin in the Far East and the arrival of Hitker on the workld stage was begconing more dangrous. The poicy Roosevelt adooted was to base American defense ion technolofy. This meant naval and airforces. Roosevel from the beginning was a navy man. He had been Assistance Sectrtary of State in World War I. He was, however, also interested in air power. The Presidentb in the face of a stronglyb isolationist envirment managed to launch a very imprtant peacetime naval rearmament that would mean that although not prepared for World War II, America was far better prepared than was the case in Workld War I. The Republican administrations after Workd War I motivated by both isolationism and austerity had cut military spebding to the bone, a policy receiving bipartisan support (1920s). This left the America military underresourced and incapable of defending America. The reduction in naval spending meant that shipyards were closing meaning that America was losing the capability of building ships even if it wanted to do so. And it was not just the shipyarsds, the comopanies and expertise that were needed fornaval construction (naval propulsion, engineering equipment, steel manufacturers, and others werre valso disappearing. 【Lindberg and Todd, pp. 214-15.】 Roosevelt's efforts were assisted led by Representative Carl Vinson. This a reversed a decade of neglect of the Navy and funding for a fledling air force. The Army for the most part continued to be neglected. Roosevelt managed to create a a balanced fleet, revitalized the American shipbuilding industry, and funded a fledging air force. By the time of Roosevelt's electiin, Naval commanders were increaingly thinking about air pwer and carriers. 【Allard, p. 37.】 President Roosevelt was commotted to American naval dominance. Only 2 months after his inagurati9on, the President unveiled plans for National Industrial Recovery Act -NIRA (May 193). NIRA included funding requetsv for naval construction. This amountd for $238 million fiorv the Nvy --seven times the previous annual budget. A baval histiruian calls this the rebirth of the U.S. Navy. 【Morrison, p. 20.】 This kled to the construction of aircraft carriers USS Yorktown (CV 5) and USS
Enterprise (CV 6). Followers of Pcific War battle know hiw imprtnt hose two ships were. here were also contracts for crusers, desrioyers and other ships. The Vinson-Trammell Act provided authorization, but nott appropriations, but it is sugnificasnt because it reversed 12 years of Americasn naval
retrenchment.
The Emergency Relief Appropriations Act (1935) provuded funding for construction on the
first 20 ships and 225 aircraft authorized in the Vinson-Trammell Act
Representative Vinson was key to the passage of the Vinson-Trammell Act (1934). This gavev the President permanent authority to build to treaty limits. Further constrution of crisers and another carrier, i>USS Wasp (CV 7) and additiionjl catt=ers followed. A major step was the Merchant Marine Act (1936^). This may not sound like nn important military step, but without a merchant marine, America had no way of applying its industrial power abroad.
The President did not aoporove fuirther nacakl expndin until Hitler and Stalin lunched world War II (1939). A factor here was the growing power of the Isolatuinists.
The U.S. Army Air Ciorps not only faced Congressuinlm limitations, but the bias of the rAmy commbders against air power. 【Jones】 Even as Congressional appropriations increased , the Army attempted to limit spending.
President Roosevelt was also interested in air power. And appropristions were invreased allowing the U.S, Army Air corps (USAAC) to develop new aircrafdt, the primary impact of this was the B-17 Flying Foortress.
The USAAC allocated $275,000 to Boeing to design and produce a four-engine bomber (1934).
Here the President acceed to his air commanders led by Hap Arnold, who used the increased, but still limuted spprpritiins to create a strategic boming force. 【Underwood】 Arnold led the commanders tht became known as the 'Bomber Boys'. The President took a serious interest in naval issues. With the air force, he rarely interfered and his primary interest was the number of planes produced. He left it up to Arnold and the Bomber boys to decide on tactics and planes. and early spurt to aircrftv produvtuins cane from he countries threatened bb the NAZIs. Spending invreased durung the Rooseveklt era, but it was only as war approcd did the paporoprituins become really suihnificant.
Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin who had become allies with the Signing of the NAZI-Soviet Pact launched World War II by invading Poland (September 1939). The Germans struck first, unleashing Blitzkrieg with all of its destructive fury by invading Poland from the morth west, and thanls to Prime Minister Chamberlain craven capitultion, the south as well. The outnumbered and outfunned Polish Amy was smashed. Stalin struck next from the wast (Septembr 1939). The two armies met at Brest-Litosk and divided Poland as agreed. They even conducted joint military parades. The Allies primarily reacted to the German invasion. Britain and France declared war on Germany (September 3). Western Newspapers focused primarily on the German invasion and reports of atricitis. Very liitle was published about Sovit atricities. In fact the Soviets were doing much the same thing in their occupation zone that the Germans were doing with the excption of the attacks on Jews.
Traveling abroad was not nearly as common before World War II as it is today. There were no cheap airfares. People traveled by ship. It was more expensive and it took much more time. There were some ameicans abroad, byr compared to the situation tody, the number was very small. They were mostly fairly afflent people that could aford foreign travel as well as students from families that could support them abroad. In addition to the well-to-do there were also Americans falling into three main groups: busnessmen, diplomats, and missionaries. With the outbreak of the War, these people needed to get home. The process was aided by the fact that America was neuteal. Thus there was no difficulty getting out of Germany or German occupied Europe. The major problem was trans-Atlantic air travel was in its infancy. Getting home had to be done by ship and the Battle of the Atlantic made Atlantic crossings difficult. Pearl Harbor and the outbreak of the Pacific War created the need to getting Americans in Asia home. The horific experience of Americans and other Westeners in Japanese captivity undescored the need to get home. Some Americans did come home as relations with Japan began to deteriorate. Many like the American military did not fully understand the military power that Japan had ammased while the United States severly limuted defense spending.
The American public generally saw Hitler and the NAZIs as despicable. Despite this the vast majority of Americans were determined to stay out of what they saw as another European War. There were, however, also interventionists who saw clearly the developing danger and argued for American involvement, goung far further than the President was willing to go. As the power iof NAZI Germany grew, so did interventionist sentiment. A major turning point was the fall of France (June 1940). The French Army had been the Allied bulwark in World War I. Many saw at this time a mortal danger if America did not get involved and at a mere mininum support Britain. There was a major difference between interventionists and isolationists. Many of the major isolationists came from the Congress. Isolationism was popular with the voters and thus it was a useful campaign issue. Interventionist ideas publically expressed was a quick way to get defeated. Supporting a popular president was possible, but loudly promoting intervention was not politically possible until after Pearl Harbor (December 1941). The same was true of Administration officials. Even the Presidebnt bhad to tread very carefully. The interventions were largely figures from bussiness, the media, and academia. Several ethnic groups were pro intervenionist, esopecially Jewush groups. And the list grew as Hitle invaded on European country after another. They were, however, not as important as the ethnic groups that tended ton opose interventiion (German, Irish, and Italian).
There were in addition to the interventionists outside of government, several figures the President turned to promote his policies. They worked outsude of Stste Depsrtmnt channels. The OPresident was contrained by the State Department which he could not fully rely on because he was prepared to go futher than he was willing to admit publically. And isolationist newpapers like the Chicago Tribune was constantly on the hunt for evuidence of the President's intervenionist commitment. One major problem with the State Department was his anmassador in Britain, Joseph P. Kennedy. Kennedy was an isolationists, but who hesitated as a Democrat to openly challenge the President. A leak even developed at the Embassy, a clerk opposed to the President's policies. Thus the President turned to several private emissaries.
Despite the strong national consensus for isolationism, President Roosevelt saw the dangers from the NAZIs and Japanese militaists. A great national debate began. The two leading figures in the debate were President Roosevelt and aviator Charles Lindbergh, the most formidable American Firster. The Isolatinists protrayed the President as an eneny of free speech. Some in the military were opposed to his pro-British policies, especially sending Britain arms the Army lacked. The President authorized wire taps and authorized a British intelligence and propaganda operation in the United States the beginning of a connction that would lead to the first American secret inteligence and spy operation. 【Olson】 The President with great determination and political courage managed to, not only support Britain in its hour of maximum peril, but with considerable political skill managed to push through Congress measures that would lay the ground work for turning American into the great Arsenal of Democracy. The President as early as 1935 began to resist the public clamour fos a policy of strict neutrality and moved by 1941 to an undecalred, but shooting war in the Atlantic. The President also layed the ground work for producing a tidal wave of equipment and supplies not only for the American military, but for our Allies as well in quantities that no one--especially the AXIS believed possible.
The United States for much of its history saw Britain as the great enemy of American democracy and Manifest Destiny. This was in part the Revolutionary War experience and perhaps even more the War of 1812 and the impressment issue. There were also other entanglements, including Florida, the Canadian border and Oregon. Anerica had invaded Canada twice and there was a real poosibility of war over Oregon (1840s). The major test of Anglo-Anerican relations was the American Civil War (1860s). There was considerable sympathy for the Condederacy among the English upper class, in part because it would have divided a potentially dangerous rival. Thankfully, wiser heads like Prince Albert helped to avoid involvement. Some immigrant groups, especially the Irish, were strongly anti-English. This anti-English sentiment appeared in popular weriting. A good example is Little Lord Fauntleroy. The last major Anglo-American crisis was over Venezuela (1890s). America fought alongside Britain in World War I. After the War, however, many Americans came to feel that participation in the War was a mistake and that Bitain had dupoed the United states in entering the War. President Roosevelt not only faced a strongly isolationist America, but considerable lingering anti-British feeling. The British for their part viewed American naval power with suspicion and as late as he 1920s, Royal Navy planning assessed America as a possible adversary. The American upper class was stronly pro-British. The same was not true of working-class Americans. Many Americans in the 1920s and 30s, however, still saw the world through the lens of their ethnic backgrounds. The British were hated by many Irish Americans. This was not just a result of the Potato Famine of the 1840s which propelled many Irish to emigrate to America, but the fight for Irish independence throughout the 19th century was propelled to the forefront by the 1916 Easter Rebellion. The terror of the IRA and the counter terror of the Black and Tans generated passions to a fever pitch in the 1920s. American politicians, especially those courting the Irish vote still made inflammatory statements in the 1920s. The mayor of Chicago threatened to poke King George V in the nose if he ever came to the city. The rise to power of Hitler and the forging of the Axis alliance between Germany and Italy generated anti-British feelings among some German and Italian Americans. But the much more prevalent attitude was that Britain was not going to drag America into another European war.
President Roosevelt first used the term "Arsenal of Democracy" on December 29, 1940 in a radio broadcast to the American people. Her explained the importance of supplying the people of Europe, at the time primarily Britain with the "implements of war". He said that the Unites States "must be the great arsenal of democracy". The very day he spoke, a Luftwaffe raid on London severely damaged famous buildings and churches in the city center and engulfed St. Paul's Cathedral in flames. 【Gilbert, p. 356.】 Hitler feared America more than any other country, but was convinced that Britain could be defeated before America could be mobilized or American industry could be effectiverly harnessed for the war effort. Neither the NAZIs or the Japanese had any idea just how effectively American production could be converted to war production. Air Marshall Goering sneered. "The Americans only know how to make razor blades." Four years later with the Luftwaffe in tatters, Goering said he knew that the War was lost when American P-51 Mustangs appeared over Berlin escorting waves of bombers. The record of American war production is staggering and in large measure determined the outcome of the War.
The isolationists significantly limited President Roosevelt's ability to bring American power to bear against the Axis. Even so, even before entering the War, the United States was shipping war supplies to Britain, underwriting the British war effort (Lend Lease), and launching an undeclared naval war in the North Atlantic. This is of course was widely report in World War II histories. Less well reported is President Roosevelt's success in spliting the Axis. The Soviets demanded after Pearl Harbor that the Western Allies open another front. In fact President Roosevelt's diplomacy essentially divided the Axis. Japan's focus was initially on the Soviet Union and even fought a brief war with the Soviets (July 1939). A united Axis almost certainly would have defeated the Soviet Union. Germany came very close to doing so by itself in Barbarossa (1941). It was President Roosevelt's diplomacy putting presure on the Japanese that was a major factor in saving the Soviets from fighting a disasterous two-front war. As a result, Germany and Japan essentially fought two separate wars rather than focusing on the Soviet before America entered the War.
As 1939 dawned, President Roosevelt had to face the end of presidency with the primary task of ending the Depression unfulfilled. Had this occurred he would not now be ranked in the presidential firmament of the three greatest presidents, below only Washington and Lincoln. We have no idea what he felt about this the end of his presidency with his primary task unfulfilled. We suspect that he was not looking forward to leaving Washington. There is no doubt that he thoroughly enjoyed being president and he undeniably very good at it. And he was just beginning perhaps his greatest accomplishment--defeating the isolationists. The third-term prohibition was considered insurmountable. Mrs. Roosevelt had no such reservations. She was looking forward to leaving Washington and assuming a more placid private life style away from the limelight. The situation in Europe, however, was rapidly moving toward war which would would change the projectory of the Roosevelt's lives and that of the American Republic. The situation rapidly deteriorated. The President wanted to help Britain and France, but was constrained by the Neutrality Acts. And it was widely believed that the British and French, secure behind the Maginot Line were more than capable of dealing with the NAZIs. The French Army was seen as the strongest in Europe. We are not sure when he began to see the idea of a Third Term as an actual possibility. The world was shocked when Stalin agreed to an alliance with Hitler, significantly impacting the balance of power (August 1939). The NAZIs invaded Poland and Britain and France declared war (September 1939). The President made considerable progress at repealing the Neutrality Laws making incremental steps to aid Britain. The idea of a third term had to begin to grow. And then the unthinkable happened. The NAZIs achieved stunning victories leading to the fall of France (June 1940). Suddenly he decided that he could and should seek a third term. And both the Democratic Party and the American people decided that they needed a seasoned leader, respected leader at the tiller. The Democratic Party drafted him at their Chicago Convention (July 1940). It would his toughest election campaign against a very appealing Republican candidate --Wendel Wilkie, but he won comfortably (November 1940). He was left with a major constraint. The major issue was the War and more specifically the intense dessire of the American people to stay out of it. Throughout the campaign, responding to Isolationist attacks, he assured the American people that "I am not going to send your boys to fight in foreign wars." Usually he added "... unless we are attacked." Now after election he was faced with the dilemma of how to intervene in Europe after making that pledge. Earlier it was reasonable to think that Britain and France could stop the NAZIs. After France fell, it was obvious that American intervention would be required. Britain's success in the Battle of Britain (September 1940). This ended the easy German victories. This was important because the resource-poor Germans could not win a protracted war. The President's Lend-Lease program ensured that bankruptcy would not force the British out of the War (March 1941). This would be extended to the Soviets when Hitler invaded (June 1941). The President took further important steps toward intervention, but refused to take the ultimate step of declaring war. Most of his closest advisors urged him to take that step. Churchill pleaded with him, but throughout the summer of 1941 he equivocated. After the Atlantic Conference with Prime-Minister Churchill (August 1941), he launched an undeclared naval campaign war in the North Atlantic, but still held back from a declaration of War. In the end Japanese Prime-Minister Tojo and German Führer Hitler would take the fateful decision for him.
It was a stunningly successful military success, brilliantly executed by the Japanese. Eight battle ships, the heart of the American Pacific fleet were sunk. But the three carriers were not at Pearl. Despite the success of the attack, it was perhaps the greatest strategic blunder in the history of warfare. The Japanese attack on the
Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbor changed everything. A diverse and quarreling nation, strongly pacifistic was instantly changed into a single united people with a burning desire to wage war. The isolationism that President Roosevelt had struggled against for over 7 years instantly disappeared. Even Lindbergh asked for a commission to fight for
the United States.
The Isolationists were one of the most powerful political movements in American history. Beginning with President Washington, there has always been a strong isolationist movement in America, one that is still presentr today. For about 4 years President Roosevelkt had been fighting the isolationists who had come to see him as a war mongerer, detwrmined to drag America into the European war. Republican Congressmen were importaht isolationists. There were also Democrats, including the Ambassaor to Great Britain, Joeph P. Kennedy. Perhaps the most iportant isolationist was aviator Charles Lindurgh. the greatest hero of the inter-War era. He was an influential voice in the most important isolatiuonist group--the American First Committee. The President won the major battles with the isolationists, including repealing the Neutrality Acts, aiding Britin, beginning a peace-time draft, and Lend Lease. Even so, the isolationists significatly impeeded his efforts to resist Axis aggression. Even as the bombs were falling at Pearl, the American Firsters staged a major rally in Pittsburgh. In a hall festooned with red, white, and wall bannets, the American Firsters engaged in anti-Roosevelt cheers awaiting the main address by Congressman Gerald Nye. He brushed aside the first news reports of the attack and delivered an anti-Roosevelt tirade, charging that the President was leading us into War and included the standard isolationist line that the munitioin makers were behind the War. Immediately afterwards Nye would blame the British. Few of the isolationists includiung Nye knew as they filed out of the auditorium that their movement that had been so powerful and influential had literally evaporate as soon as the American public learned about the Japanese sneak attack on America.
Allard, Dean C. "Naval Rearmament, 1930–1941: An American Perspective," Revue internationale d’histoire militaire Vol. 73 (1991).
Gilbert, Martin. A History of the United States Vol. II.
Jones, Howard G. "A new rival: The rise of the American Air Force," Air Power History Vol. 38, No. 4 (Winter 1991), pp. 18-29.
Lindberg and Todd, Anglo-American Ship-building. pp. 68, 87.
Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Two-Ocean War: A Short History of the United States Navy in the Second World War<./i> (Boston: Little, Brown, 1963).
Olson, Lynne. Those Angry Days: Roosevelt, Lindbergh, and America's Fight Over World War II, 1939-1941 (2012), 576p.
Underswood, Jeffery Scott. "The Army Air Corps Under Franklin D. Roosevelt: The Influence of Air Power on the Roosevelt Administration, 1933-1941," LSU Historical Dissertations and Theses, No. 4545. (1988).
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