|
There have been several periods of war lords in Chinese history. China is a huge country and is thus understandable how regionalism, which is one element leading to war lords, could develop. The most recent phenomenon of the War Lords began with the military reforms implemented in the final years of the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty. The Empress Dowager in sharp contrast to the Japanese Emperot Meiji did not attempt to establish a national army. Instead she made use of regional armies and militias. They lacked any standardization or overall consistency. This made it virtually impossible to build a strong modern army, but avoided threatening vested interests that may have endangered the Imperial system. The most powerful military force in China was the northern-based Beijing Army commanded by Yuan Shikai. Based around Beijing and with influence in the royal court, Yuan received financial support from the Empress. His army thus had modern weapons and were the best trained military force in China. Officers in the various regional forces were loyal to their superiors who paid their salaries. This was true during the late-Imperial era. The regional commanders formed cliques or close alliances with each other based upon factors like geography and personal military academy experiences. The various units were made up of recruits from the same province. This policy reduced possible dialectal miscommunication, but it also encouraged regional rather than national loyalties. This balkanization became even more of a problem after the Imperial system was overthrown. Many commanders had been to a degree loyal to the Emperor (meaning the Dowager Empress), there was, however, only a few war lords and their forces to support new new Republic (1911-12). Yuan was able, as a result, to seize control of the Republic and smash the Guomindang/Kuomintang (KMT). The student-led May Fourth Movement help revived the fortunes of the KMT and other nationalists. After Yuan's death a war lord government survived in Beijing. A succession of warlords replaced Yuan. Yuan and the other war loads were former commanders of the Imperial Army. It was the government recognized by foreign powers. Other war lords also controlled various regions as virtually feudal fiefdoms with varying degrees of independence from central control. Besides the larger struggle for control of the nation, people in villages throughout China were caught in the crossfire between competing regional war lords and between the war lords and the developing Nationalist and Communist forces. And in the absence of a strong national government, banditry flourished. Local militias were organized to protect villages. Chang and the KMT defeated the major war lords in the Northern Expedition (1925-27). This was the end of the War Lord era, but the influence of the war lords did not end with the Northern Expedition. It continued to be a problem with China's ability to prosecute the war with Japan and develop a strong national army. .
There have been several periods of war lords in Chinese history. China is a huge country and is thus understandable how regionalism, which is one element leading to war lords, could develop. The most recent phenomenon of the War Lords began with the military reforms implemented in the final years of the Qing (Manchu) Dynasty. The Empress Dowager in sharp contrast to the Japanese Emperot Meiji did not attempt to establish a national army. Instead she made use of regional armies and militias. They lacked any standardization or overall consistency. This made it virtually impossible to build a strong modern army, but avoided threatening vested interests that may have endangered the Imperial system. The most powerful military force in China was the northern-based Beijing Army commanded by Yuan Shikai. Based around Beijing and with influence in the royal court, Yuan received financial support from the Empress. His army thus had modern weapons and were the best trained military force in China. Officers in the various regional forces were loyal to their superiors who paid their salaries. This was true during the late-Imperial era. The regional commanders formed cliques or close alliances with each other based upon factors like geography and personal military academy experiences. The various units were made up of recruits from the same province. This policy reduced possible dialectal miscommunication, but it also encouraged regional rather than national loyalties.
Sun Yat-Sen (孫中山 / 孫逸仙) led overthrow of the Qing dynasty and eventual Double Ten Revolution. He was appointed to serve as Provisional President of the Republic of China when it was founded (1912). He later co-founded the Kuomintang (KMT) and was its first leader. This balkanization of China which began during the late-Imperial period became even more of a problem after the Imperial system was overthrown. Many commanders had been to a degree loyal to the Emperor (meaning the Dowager Empress), there was, however, only a few war lords and their forces to support new new Republic (1911-12). Yuan Shikai who commanded remnnts of the Impeil Army was able, as a result, to seize control of the Republic and smash the Guomindang/Kuomintang (KMT). Sun was firced to resign as president and flee Bejing. Yuan formed what became known as the Beiyang Government.
China was not a factor in World War I, but the war affected the country. China was far away from both the Eastern and Western Fronts and at the time, with some accuracy, saw itself victimized by all of the major beligerant countries. Some early fighting, however, occurred in China. Japan which had a naval treaty with Britain declared war on Germany. The British wanted to use the Japanese rather than weaken the Grand Fleet to dispatch vessels to the Pacific. Japan spmewhat to Britain's surprise, eagerly joined the war, seeing the possibility of acquiring Germany’s Pacific colonies and take over its Chinese concessions. The Japanese dispatched a naval squadron to intercept the German Pacific Squadron commanded by Admiral von Spee seeking refugee in Tsingtao Harbour. The Japanese blockaded Tsingtao and minor naval skirmishes occurred. The Japanese landed troops on the Shantung Peninsula and moved south toward Kiaochow (September 2, 1914). Kiaochow had a garrison of 5,500 German and Austro-Hungarian troops. The Japanese drive was reinforced by a British expiditionary regiment made up of Indian (Sikh) and Welsh troops (September 24). After some intense fighting the Germans and Austro-Hungarians surrendered (November 7). This was the only significant fighting taking place in China. Britain like the other major beligerant countries were running short of men because of the terrible casulties. The British suffered dreadful casulties on the Somme (1916). One effort to address this problem was to recruit workers throughout the Empire. As Britain had Chinese treaty ports, this meant China was one of the countries where workers were recruited. Most came from Shan Tung (Shandong), but there were also recruits from Honan (Hunan). The British also recruited missionry and sinologue officers. About 100,000 Chinese were recruited. The Chinese labor units under British military descipline debarked from Weihaiwei (Weihai) which was a British treaty port until 1930. The Chinese were used to dig trenches and build other fortifications. They were not used in the actual fighting, but about 2,000 died from mines, illness (such as the Inflenza Epidemic after the War), and other causes. A few were shot as a result of a mutiny at Boulogne. [Summerskill] China declared war on Germany (1917). There was no real Chinese concern about Germany as the British and Japanese has seized Germany's concessions in China. China sa, however, diplomatic problems since Japan had joined the Allies and the Royal Navy commanded the seas. Despite the declaration of war, I do not know of any significant Chinese contribution to the Allied war effort. China after the War benefited from American insistence at Versailles that the Open Door Policy be accedpted by the major powers. This was a major issue at the Washington Naval Conference (1921-22).
The Chinese Beiyang Government during World war I had signed a secret arrangemnent with Japan aceeding to the loss of Shandong, a primary target of Japanese expanists. This was done to avoid a war with Japan and stave off the more expansive implementation of Japan's Twenty-One Demands. After the War, at the Paris Peace Conference, the details of the secret deal with Japan became public knowledge in China (1919). The reaction in China was furious. The Chinese not only objected to the loss of an important province, but viewed the transfer as a betrayal by the Western powers who were widely despised because of the seizure of port cities. The Chinese also increasingly came to see Japan as an aggressive neigboring power. And it all thoroghly dstroyed the legitimacy of the alreay unpopular corrupt Beiyang warlord government established by former Imperial General Yuan Shi-kai (袁世凱). Students in Beijing staged massive demonstration against both the Beiyang Government and Japan (May 4). Some 3,000 students from 13 Beijing universities assembled at the Gate of Heavenly Peace at Tiananmen Square. They protested the Versailles Peace Conference. The students passed out fliers insisting that China would never accept the concession of Chinese territory to Japan or any other power. The students then marched to the legation quarter (where foreign embassies were located). They presented protest letters to foreign missions. Then in the afternoon, the students confronted the three pro-Japanese cabinet officials who had been involved in the secret treaties that encouraged Japan to enter the war. They denounced the Beiyang Government's attacked the Government's spineless inability to protect nationl interests and demanded a boycott of Japanese products. The students insisted on the resignation of three Chinese officials they identified as collaborating with the Japanese. They burned the residence of one of these officials and beat his servants. They also attacked China’s ambassador to Japan. [Wasserstrom] It is at this point that the police interbene and 32 students were arrested and beaten, just the beginning of attempts to supress the demonstrations. Reports of the Beijing students’ demonstration and arrest spread throughout China. The press immdiately demanded that the Government release the students. Students also staged demonstrations in Fuzhou. Guangzhou, Nanjing, Shanghai, Tianjin, and Wuhan. This was followed by shop closings (June 1919). Students led a boycott of Japanese goods. Japanese nationals resident in China were attacked. Newly formed labor unions join the students and stage strikes. The disorders in cities throughout China scared the Government. As aresult, the Government agreed to manynof the demands. Thdehy released the arrested students and dismissed the three cabinet officials. Ultimatelly the entire cabinet resigned. The Chinese delegation at Versailles Peace Conference rejected the Treaty. Intelectuals and the general public were also outraged. The result was the May Fourth Movement. The intelectual off shoot of the patriotic student demonstrations was the New Culture Movement. Students and intectuals discussed China's future. A wide range of visions were offered. Students returning home from studies and often work abroad added to the political ferment. The ideas ranged from liberal democracy to communism and many permutations in between. Military power, however, still resided in the hands of the war lords (the former Imperial Army commanders).
After Yuan Shikai's death (1916) a war lord government survived in Beijing, but had even less popular support than Yuan's Beiyng Government. A succession of warlords replaced Yuan. Control of China was divided among many different wr loads. The war lords controlled Sichuan, Shanxi, Qinghai, Ningxia, Guangdong, Guangxi, Gansu, Yunnan and Xinjiang. Yuan and the other war loads were former commanders of the Imperial Army. It was the government recognized by foreign powers. Other war lords also controlled various regions as virtually feudal fiefdoms with varying degrees of independence from central control. Besides the larger struggle for control of the nation, people in villages throughout China were caught in the crossfire between competing regional war lords and between the war lords and the developing Nationalist and Communist forces. And in the absence of a strong national government, banditry flourished. Local militias were organized to protect villages. While the war lords controlled most of northern and central China, they were constantly at each others throats, fighting a series of disruptive wars. This allowed the Republican forces supported by the KMT and Chinese Communist Party (CCP), at the time uneasy allies, to organize and build up their forces in the south.
The student-led May Fourth Movement help revived the fortunes of the KMT and other nationalists. South China became a hotbed of revolutionary activity against the Beiyang Government (北洋政府). This was the Government
formed by former Imperial General Yuan Shikai in Bejing (Peking) after the Republican Revolution (1911-12). It was in the south that opposition to Yuan was the strongest. The southern provinces were Yunnan, Sichuan, Guizhou, Hunan, Guangxi and Guangdong (including Hainan). The south seems to have been the most restive because it was more exposed to Western ideas than the more traditional north. The south was the first to revolt against the Qing Imperial system launching the Republican Revolution (1911) and than against Yuan Shikai (1913 and 1916). Chang Hsun (Zhang Xun), a warlord general, attempted to restore the depose Puyi, still a boy, to the throne. Chang surrounded Beijing and Puyi or rather the court claimed that Puyi who was only 9 years old was again the emperor. After this Qing restoration debaclel, several southern provinces led by Tang Jiyao and Lu Rongting refused to recognize the new Duan Qirui cabinet and parliament controlled by Yuan. Sun Yat-sen taking advantage of Yran Shiki's death, wove together a loose coalition of respected politicians, KMT members of the dissolved National Assembly, and southern war lords (late-July 1917) and form a rival government in Guangzhou (Canton) -- Constitutional Protection Government. The southern factions established Guangzhou as the legitimate capital, but it did not attract international recognition. As in the north, southern war lords attempted to seize control, often trying to legitimize themselves on the basis of provincial rights. This was especually th case of Guangxi.
Constitutional protection (1917–1922)
Gen. Chiang Kai-shek, commander of the Whampoa Militry Accademy, emerged as he dominant figure in the KMT. He became the leader of the National Revolutionary Army (NRA). He ovesaw the Canton Coup / Zhongshan Incident (1926). This was a confused incident in Guangzhou (Canton). It amounted to a purge of Chinese Communist Party (CCP) elements of the NRA in Guangzhou. This incident solidified Chiang's power over the NRA and KMT. Chiang managed to end all civilian control over the KMT and restrict the influence of the Communists who with Soviet military advisers were steadily infiltrating the NRA and overcoming right-wing resistance. Chiang managed to limit CCP influence without breaking with the Soviet Union which he needed for his long-planned Northern epedition. Trotsky opposed continued coopertion with the KMT, but Stalin supported it. List of CCP members within the KMT were provided Chiang. With an improved position in Guangzhou, Chiang then launched the Northern Expedition (summer 1926). The first engagements resulted in important victories over the Zhili Cliqu armies of Wu Peifu and Sun Chuanfang in central and eastern China. At this point the Guominjun (KMC) and Shanxi warlord Yan Xishan deciced to join Chiang and the KMT against the Fengtian. The Fengtian or Fengtian Clique (奉系军阀 ) was one of several warlord factions that had split from the Beiyang Govrnment in Beijing. It was named after Fengtian (Liaoning) Province where its support was strogest and a major target of the Japanese. The Fengtian was led by Zhang Zuolin. They had struggled with the Zhili for control of Beijing and the nominal government of China. The result had been the chaotic First Zhili-Fengtian War (1922) and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War (1924). Feng Yuxiang, Hu Jingyi and Sun Yue formed the Guominjun or Nationalist / Nortwest Army (KMC). Feng who had been cooperating with the Zhili Clique occupied Beijing, captured Zhili leader Cao Kun, and expelled deposed Qing Dynasty Emperor Puyi who had been allowed to remain in the Forbidden City after the Republican Revolution. The KMC was a natural ally with the KMT's NRA. The KMC main source of foreign support and arms was the Soviet Union which had vying with the Japanese for influence over the Fengtian Clique. The Soviets were keen on building a relationship with Feng and the KMC as he was seen as more ideologically acceptable of the various norther warlords. Fengtian leader Zhang Zuolin backed by the Japanese provided weapons to anti-KMC Muslim rebels led by Ma Tingrang during the Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30). The power of the Fengtian Clique began to disipate as Chiang moved the NRA north. Zhang Zuolin with the Fengtian Army retreated north. His Japanese sponsors apparently viewing this as cowardive blew up his train and Zhang ws killed (1928). His son, Zhang Xueliang took over the leadership of the Fengtian. Zhang deciding the Japanese could not be trusted switched sides and pledged loyalty for himself and his army to Chiang and the KMT. Meanwhile the KMT uneasy alliance with the Communists was shattered. Chiang violently purged the Communists. This was the beginning of the Chinese Civil War. Chiang established a capital in Nanjing (Nanking), but needed control of Beijing (Peking), long seen as China's capital to obtain international recognition. Yan Xishan, now a KMT general, occupied Beijing after the death of Zhang Zuolin. At this point the NRA and KMC merged to fught the Communists. This essentially formally ended the War Lord era, but the influence of the war lords did not end with the Northern Expedition. Chiang had defeated ome, others simply accepted nominal KMT control. They continued to be a problem with China's ability to prosecute the war with Japan and develop a strong national army. Zhang's son, Zhang Xueliang, who had made his peace wih Chiang and the KMT negotiated an arrngement that he would continue to rule Manchuria in the name of the KMT. This arrangement ended when the Japanese, his father's former sponsor, invaded Manchuria (1931).
Wasserstrom, Jeffrey N. "Chinese Students and Anti-Japanese Protests, Past and Present," World Policy Journal.
Related Chronolgy Pages in the Boys' Historical Web Site
[The 1880s]
[The 1890s]
[The 1900s]
[The 1910s]
[The 1920s]
[The 1930s]
[The 1940s]
[The 1950s]
[The 1960s]
[The 1970s]
[The 1980s]
[The 1990s]
[The 2000s]
Navigate the Children in History Website
[Return to the Main Chinese 1920s unification page]
[Return to the Main Chinese 20th century page]
[Biographies]
[Campaigns]
[Children]
[Countries]
[Deciding factors]
[Diplomacy]
[Geo-political crisis]
[Economics]
[Home front]
[Intelligence]
[POWs]
[Resistance]
[Race]
[Refugees]
[Technology]
[Totalitarian powers]
[Bibliographies]
[Contributions]
[FAQs]
[Images]
[Links]
[Registration]
[Tools]
[Return to Main World War II page]
[Return to Main war essay page]
