The Cold War: Country Trends--Mongolia


Figure 1.-- Horloogiyn Choybalsan was the Stalin of Mongolia and like Stalin had blood in his hnds. Under orders from Moscow, he launced his own deadly Stalinist terror in Mongolia soon after his selection by Stalin (1936). Here he is with Mongolian Young Pioneers shorty before his death (1952).

Mongolia and China have a closely intetwined history. It was because of th Mongols and other Steppe people that the Chimese built the Great wall. At times the Mongols conquered China and at times the Chinese extended their control over large areas of the Steppe. Finally the Chinese Manchu-Qing dynasty Chinese managed to incorporated much of the Steppe including what is now Mongolia into their Empire (late-17th century). The Chinese were making major military advances just at the time that Europeans had begun to arrive along the coast. Mongolia was never part of the Tsarist Empire whivh it bordered to the north. Following the collapse of the Qing Empire (1911), Mongolia declared independence but had to struggle with the Chinese to gain de facto independence (1921). Here a major factor was the Russian Revolution and Civil War. The Soviets after the Civil War gained influence in Mongolia, largely because of their military strength. The Soviets never incorporated Mongolia into he soviet Union, perhaps because it was never part of the Tsarist Empire. They did exert total control over Mongolia which was not allowed to conduct their own international reltions. The Mongolians under Soviet control declared the Mongolian People's Republic (1924). Mongolian politics for the next six decadeds followed the basic patterns as Soviet politics. Stalin personally chose Horloogiyn Choybalsan to govern Mongolia (1936). Choybalsan, following Stalin's example, ruled Mongolia with an iron hand. The Mongolian-Manchurian (Manchukuo) border was the scene of a major battle between the Soviet Union and Japan just before the onset of World War II (July 1939). It was not a massive engagement by world war II standards, but it was enough to convince the Japanese tht the Red Army was a formidable fotrce. Unlike China, Japan, and the Soviet Union, Mongolia was not devestated by World War II. The Chinese Nationalist Government after World War II recognized the full independence of Mongolia (1945). We are not entirely sure why, but presumably reflected the Soviet control of Mongolia. Mao after the Comminists seized power did not question this step (1949). After Stalin's death (1953) and Nikita Kruschev's denounciation of Stalin at the Twentieth Party Congress, the Mongolian Party did the same to Choybalsan. The Party condemned Choybalsan's personality cult and many of his hard-line policies. As this was essentially the same policies beung pursued in Moscow, the Mongols has a degree of flexibility that they did not have under Stalin. The Mongols shifted their priorities to ecomonic development and permitted small-scale private enterprise--something not allowed in the Soviet Union. The Soviets permited the Mongols to estanlish ties with 'safe' countries--the new Communist countries established after World War II. Mongolia gradually became regonized by the international community. Although a Soviet puppet state, Mongolia managed for atime to navigate a degree of neutrality in the Sino-Soviet split (1960s), but eventually the Soviet Red Army entered Mongolia in strength and was deployed along the Chinese border. The country was admitted to the United Nations (1961). Mongolia continued as a Soviet puppet state until the late-1980s. The end of Soviet control and fall of Communism in Eastern Europe resonated in Mongolia. After the Eastern European Revolutions and fall of Communism (1989), the Mongolian Revolution (1990) led to the creation of a multi-party system, a new constitution (1992), and beginning the transition to a market economy.

Background

Mongolia and China have a closely intetwined history. It was because of th Mongols and other Steppe people that the Chimese built the Great wall. At times the Mongols conquered China and at times the Chinese extended their control over large areas of the Steppe. Finally the Chinese Manchu-Qing dynasty Chinese managed to incorporated much of the Steppe including what is now Mongolia into their Empire (late-17th century). The Chinese were making major military advances just at the time that Europeans had begun to arrive along the coast. Mongolia was never part of the Tsarist Empire whivh it bordered to the north.

Soviet Dominance (1920s)

Following the collapse of the Qing Empire (1911), Mongolia declared independence but had to struggle with the Chinese to gain de facto independence (1921). Here a major factor was the Russian Revolution and Civil War. The Soviets after the Civil War gained influence in Mongolia, largely because of their military strength. The Soviets never incorporated Mongolia into he Soviet Union, perhaps because it was never part of the Tsarist Empire. They did exert total control over Mongolia which was not allowed to conduct their own international reltions. The Mongolians under Soviet control declared the Mongolian People's Republic (1924). Mongolia this became the first satellite natiomn in the new Soviet Union's empire. Mongolian politics for the next six decadeds followed the basic patterns as Soviet politics. The Soviet-dominated Mongolian People's Republic was declared after the death of the Bogd VIII (1924). The Chinese retained control of Inner-Mongolia. The Communists after the Revolution combined Inner Mongolia with Mongol areas of western Manchuria and the former privince of Jehol to form the the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. Mongolia thus became a republic for the first time and a constitution promulgated. The revolution leaders establishing the republic were supported by the Soviets and of course chose to create a Communist state. This new regime became well established (1925-28). There were major differences among the MPRP leadership, primarily concerning the relationship with the Soviet Union. The Communists commenced to make major reforms in Mongolian society. Few countries were changed more than Mongolia which at the time was still an essentially feudal society. In an effort to create a classless society, the nobiloty with all its privliges was abloished. The new government introduced Western medicine and technologies. A modern educational system was set up, although much of the country was still nomadic pastoralists which were at first largely untouched by the reforms. Peljidiyn Genden believed in an independent Mongolia and was not a Communist idealogue. He emerged to lead the country (1932-36). Genden scaled back the attempts to create a Soviet command economy and adamently reject Soviet demands to allow Soviet Red Army troops to be stationed in Mongolia. He rejected a direct order from Stalin to 'liquidate' Buddhist monks. His independent temperament and outspokenness. Led to his demise. He fearlessly confronting Stalin during their public meetings in Moscow. People did not dare do this, but Genden did. He attempted to prevent Stalins ordered murder of Mongolia's Buddhist lamas (priests). Incredibly, Genden actually grabbed Stalin's pipe and smashed it on the floor in one of their hea conrontations. This and his fervent nationalism led to an all to predictable Soviet-orchestrated purge (March 1936). Horloogiyn Choybalsan with Soviet backing replaced Genden. Genden without any basis in fact was arrested and transported to Moscow. He was accused of conspiring to undermine the Revolution and spying for the Japanese. He was sot in Moscow (November 1937).

Horloogiyn Choybalsan

Horloogiyn Choybalsan slavishly fell in line with the Soviets. Choybalsan (Хорлоогийн Чойбалсан) (1895–1952) studied to be Buddhist monk as a boy, but ran away. A Russian consulate enrolled him in a translator program and he later became associted with radicalized Mongolian students returning from Moscow. Stalin personally chose Choybalsan to govern Mongolia (1936). He would be the Communist leader of the Mongolian People's Republic and Marshal (general chief commander) of the Mongolian armed forces until his death (1952). And like stalin, he ruled with an iron hand. He was a rare Communist leader who was also a military commander. He was also the only Mongolian leader in modern history who amassed absolute political power. The Soviets never formally annexed Mongoilia, but the country was integrated into the Soviet Empire. He was commonly referred to accurately as 'the Stalin of Mongolia'. He followed Soviet instructions to the letter. Choibalsan when Stalin launched the Great Terror followed suit in Mongolia. The Mongolian Government was controlled by the Soviets. And like the Soviet Union, Stalin subjected Mongolia to vicious purges. Thosands were executed or disappeared into the Gulag. Some 30,000 to 35,000 Mongolians were murdered. While small in numbers compred to Stalin;s terror, it was a substantial number in terms of the much smller population. The individuals targeted were Buddhist clergy, intelligentsia, political dissidents, ethnic minorities (Buryats and Kazakhs), and others deemed 'enemies of the Revolution'. The persecution of Mongolia's Buddhists was so intense tht it nearly extinguished orgnized Buddhism in Mongolia. Choibalsan's totlly subservient compliance with Stalin enabled him to create a degree of independence from Moscow. During Choybalsan's rule Soviet economic, political, and military role in Mongolia steadily increased. The Soviets sponsored infrastructure in what was basically a medieval country.

World War II (1939-45)

The Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931) created a land border between Japan and Mongolia. Presented with a serious Japanese threat, the Soviets even though they had a cooperative pupet regine, decidided to change policy in Mongolia. Instead of rapidly imposing socialism eventually decided on a more gradualist approach which would generate less domestic resistance. Economic gradualism was calculated to best support a program of building a national defense. Japan had seized Manchuria (1931). This brought the Japanese to the Mongolian border, but it was a poorly defined border. The Soviet-Mongolian army led by Zukov defeated a Japanese army in the Battle of Halhin Gol (1939). This was the scene of a little-publicised, but very important engagement of World War II. The Mongolian-Manchurian (Manchukuo) border was the scene of a major battle between the Soviet Union and Japan just before the onset of World War II (July 1939). Japanese Army units began probing the border and clashing with Mongolian border guards (1936). These small skirmishes between Japanese and Mongolians patrols gradually ecalated. With Europe moving toward war, Stalin gave General Zukov the assignment of putting an end to these destractions. The result was the Khakhin Gol Incident. (The Japanese refered to these clashes in Manchiria and China as 'incidents'. Admission of war had legal ramifications, especially in the United States where it would triuger the Nutrality Laws. Even the war with China was referred to as an 'incident'.) The result was a massive Red Army offensive and decisive defeat of the of the highly motivared, but poorly eqyuipped and led Japanese Army. It was not a massive engagement by world war II standards, but it was enough to convince the Japanese tht the Red Army was a formidable fotrce. This almost certainly was a factor in Japan's subsequent decesion to attack America rather than the Soviet Union. As a result, Mongolia, unlike China, Japan, and the Soviet Union was not devestated by World War II. The Chinese Nationalist Government after World War II recognized the full independence of Mongolia (1945). We are not entirely sure why, but presumably reflected the Soviet control of Mongolia. Mao after the Comminists seized power did not question this step for Outer Mongolia, but retained Inner Mongolia. (1949).

Post-War Developments

The Soviets had no issues with the compliant Mongolians. Thus with good relations with Moscow, the Mongolians began their post-War development. The concentration was on civilian enterprise. There was little military expansion. A major iniitative was to build a modrn economic system. Literacy rates rose. Mongolia began for the first time, establishing international ties. The Soviets permited the Mongols to estanlish ties with with safe fraternal Communist states--the various Communist countries established after World War II. Mongolia established relations with North Korea and the new Soviet-controlled Communist states in Eastern Europe. Mongolia and the People's Republic of China recognized each other immeditly after the Communit victory in the Chinese Civil war (1949). China renounced all territorial claims over Outer Mongolia. China even provided skilled workers for infrastructure projcts. Momgolia expnded its participation in international conferences, at least those sponsored by Communist countries, mostly the Soviet Union.

De-Stalinization (1950s)

After Stalin's death (1953) and Nikita Kruschev's denounciation of Stalin at the Twentieth Party Congress, the Mongolian Party did the same to Choybalsan who had died a year before Stalin. The Party condemned Choybalsan's personality cult and many of his hard-line policies. As this was essentially the same policies beung pursued in Moscow, the Mongols has a degree of flexibility that they did not have under Stalin. The Mongols shifted their priorities to ecomonic development and permitted small-scale private enterprise--something not allowed in the Soviet Union. Mongolia gradually became regonized by the international community.

Sino-Soviet Conflict (1960s)

Although a Soviet puppet state, Mongolia managed for atime to navigate a degree of neutrality in the Sino-Soviet split (1960s). This neutral orientation under Soviet pressure changed in the middle of the decade. Mongolia acceeded to a security agreement the Soviets demanded (1966). This allowed the Soviets to deploy substantial ground force combat forces. This was a part of Moscow's overall buildup along their border with China. Relations between Mongolia and China thus deteriorated. The finl act in the anti-Chinese policy was deporting some of the 7,000 ethnic Chinese in Mongolia to China (1983). Many of the Chinese expelled lived in Mongolia since the 1950s, when they were sent there to assist in infrastructure projects.

Soviet Puppet

Mongolia was admitted to the United Nations (1961). We begin to see the Mongolians an international conferences. Mongolia continued as a Soviet puppet state until the late-1980s.

Fall of Communism (1990)

The democratic opposition grew in 1980s with the rlaxation of KGB controls. The opposition openly demanded political reforms. The end of Soviet control and fall of Communism in Eastern Europe resonated in Mongolia. After the Eastern European Revolutions and fall of Communism (1989), the opposition staged public demonstrations with substantial public participation (December 1989). the Mongolian Revolution (1990) led to the creation of a multi-party system, a new constitution (1992), and beginning the transition to a market economy. The Soviets relinquished control of Mongolia (1990). Mongolia finally obtained real independence. The well-organized Communisys win the first multi-party elections. Mongolia adopted a new Constitution which guaranteed an open, competitive democracy and substantial economic changes (1992). The country launched on a demoritization process which seems more successfulthan the former-Soviet "stans" of central Asia. The Communists win the first election under the new Cobstitution (1992). A Democratic Coalition unexpevtedly defeat the Communists in an election (1996). The Communists won the next election (2000).






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Created: 6:45 AM 2/15/2016
Last updated: 5:02 PM 2/15/2016