The Cold War: Austria (1945-92)

Figure 1.--Here we see Austrian children that needed to find adoptive parents in foreign countries. There were still refugee camps operating. The Swedish press caption read, "Venezuelas minister dr José Herrera Uslar med två av de elca österrikiska barn som fått fristad i Sverige. Efter en ansträngånde 40-timmars tågresa från München an- lände på söndagen till Stockholm 11 österrikiska och tyska barn, som genom Rädda barnens försorg skall tas om hand och så småningom adopteras av svenska familjer. Bayerska röda korset har valt ut barnen i oika flyktingläger. Deras föräldrar har inte ajälva någon möjlighet att sörja för dem." That meant something like, "Venezuelan Minister Dr. José Herrera Uslar with two of the [elca?] Austrian children granted refuge in Sweden. After an exhausting 40-hour train ride from Munich they arrived Sunday in Stockholm 11 Austrian and German children, who through Save the Children's auspices will be cared for and eventually adopted by Swedish families. Bavarian Red Cross has chosen [oika?] children in refugee camps. Their parents have do not have the resources to provide for them." The photograph is dated December 2, 1951. We are not sure why the Venezuelan Ambassador was involved. The Austrian children may have come from the sovier Zone.

The occupation of Austria was significantly impacted by advent of the Cold War. The Soviets attempted to establish a Communist puppit government in Austria. This proved difficult, however, because they did not control the country as was the case throughout Eastern Euroope. They did control the eastern half of Austria. Stalin had selected Socialist leader Karl Renner to head a puppet government. Renner only a few days after the fall of Vienna and before the Americans had reached Austria Renner had formed a provisional government (April 27, 1945). The Western Allies st first refused to recognize the Renner Government. Renner and his associates met with political representatives from the other occupatioin zones. Renner agreed to expand his provisional government to include representatives from the Western zones and agreement was reached on nation-wide elections. The Allied Council then proceeded to recognize Reenner's provisional government (October 20, 1945). The elections which followed (November 25) resulted in a crusing defeat of the Communists ganered only about 5 percent of the vote. This might have occurred in other Eastern European countries if free elections had taken place. Most Austrians voted for the Austrian People's Party and the Austrian Socialist Party. The Allied Council adopted a new control agreemment (1946). This granted greater authority to the Austrian Government. This democrsatically elected government supported by the western Allies was difficult for the Soviets to deal with. The Austrians passed more than 500 laws that the Soviets tried to block, but were out voted on the Allied Council. When the Soviets began seizing German assetts in Austria as a foirm of war repriatiins (July 1946), the Austrian government nationalized German assets to keep them out of Soviet hands. The Soviets opposed the Austrian law and when they were out voted on the Allied Council proceeded to seize German assetts in their occupation zone. The Soviets also tried to prevent Austria from participating in the American Marshall Plan, but the 1946 Control Agreement prevented Austria from participating or from joining the Organization for European Economic Co-operation. The Allied western sector of Austria prospered much more than the Soviet eastern occupation zone. The Austrian economy, at least the Westen sector along with German had begun to recover (early-1950s). Voralberg in the French sector had begun to benefit from Swiss tourists. The economy of the Soviet sector lagged behind the western sector. The school photo here is from Schwechat which was near Vienna in the Soviet sector. The Soviets imposed strict limitations on the population in their sector. Austrians there were not permitted even to go into Vienna without giving a reason to Soviet occupation authorities and getting their permission. Austria like Switzerland did not participate in European unification. Austria was the only neutral country along the Cold War Iron Curtain, although Yugoslavia to the south was ambiguous. Vienna became the location of Cold War diplomatic intrigue. Austria emerged on the diplomatic stage when it tried to play a co-leading role in the group of neutral and non-allied countries (1970s). This movement gradually became a platform for anti-Western propaganda and meaningless left-wing posturing. Austrian policy thus eventually gravitated toward a more meaningful engagement with Europe (1980s). Austria after World War I suffered economically because it was cut off from the traditional markets of the vast Hapsburg eastern lands. After World War II, Austria adjusted to being a small country, developing a vibrant economy with high social standards and high value industries. The small market problem was solved by trade arangements with Euroopenb Economic Community (EEC) which evolved into the European Union (EU). This had been prevented by the 1955 State Treaty. After the end of the Cold War, Austria began to negotiate entry in the EU (1989) and becane a full member (1995).

World War II

NAZI Gernmany annexed Austria in the Anchsluss just before World War II (1938). The action was wildly popular both in Austria and Germany. Thus during World War II, Austria was the Ostmark, a provibce of NAZI Germany. Austrians enthusiastically embraced the NAZIs. Several Austriand were prominent NAZIs. Austrians served in the German Army. A particularly brutal Gauleiter was causing problems in Vienna, so Hitler appointed Baldur von Schirach (former Hitler Youth leader) as Gauleiter and Governor of Vienna. He provided a little cultural gloss to the NAZI regime. After successfully transporting Vienna Jews to the death camps, von Schiracht wisely left Vienna as the Red Army approached. The Allies were conflicted on Austria. The Moscow Declaration declard that Austria was a separate nation that was the first victim of Hitler's aggression, but recoignized Austrian participation in the Hitklerite agression (1943). The Allies were aware, however, that there had been strong support for the NAZIs in Austria. The Allies were not even sure Austria was a viable state. And its strategic positiion posed a future danger in post-War Europe. Soviet policy during the War was open. The British as the War developed considered various options, including a Danubian confederacy or a political union with Bavaria. The Americans were at first reluctant to commit foirces for a full scle occupation of Austria. They thought that an occupation of Vienna might sufuice. Both the Soviets and the British advocated a full American commitment to Austria largely on cost grounds. In the end, NAZI propagand Minister Goebels played a role in the American position. Concern over a supposed NAZI national redoubt in the Alps caused Gen. Eisenhower to turn way from Berlin and shift the American drive south. In the final months of the War, the Red Army entered Austria from the east (Hungary) and seized Vienna which is close to the eastern border with Czechoslovakia and Hungary (1945). The Americans entered Austria from both the south (Italy) and the north (Bavaria).

Yalta: Eastern Europe

Critics of President Roosevelt have charged that he gave away Eastern Europe to the Soviets. Now there was no doubt that the President was sick at Yalta and not as forcefulm orv thoughtful as he might have been. And his approach at Tehran show gthat even when in better health he had fundamentally misjudged Stalin's character and the nature of the Soviet state. But this is not the same as giving away Eastern Europe. One can not give away something that one does not possess. The simple fact was that America and Britain had defeated only one of the two powers that launched World War II and began to carve up Europe. The Soviet Union had done the great bulk if the fighting in Europe and was largely responsible for defeating the Whermacht. There were 9 million Red army boots on the ground. America and Britain simply could not alter this fact. The United States could have theoretically threatened to usee the atomic bomb, but it did not yet exist and even after it did, usung it in the Soviet Unuion was unthinkable. There was enormous sympathy forv the Soviet Union for defeating the vaunted Whermacht--often forgetting the NAZI-Soviet alliance which actually launched the War. A more reasonable assessmentb is that Roosevelt emboldened Stalin. [Gellately] This has to be viewedcin context. Just how does the United States and Britain fight a war dependingv on one of two criminal regimes as an ally? And one concern that has to be born in mind is that the possibility that Stalin could have switched sides again or exited the war with a territorial settlment with Hitler. There were in fact diplomatic contacts between the NAZIs and Soviets. Churchill was more focused on Eastern Europe. He correctly undestood that once the Red Army moved into Eastern Europe it was not going to move. There was no possibility of moving in force into Eastern Europe. Austria wa more up for grabs as it was further west and a part of the Reich. He told the President just before the meeting that they should occupy as much of Austria as possible. [Churchill] We know of no orders from the President to do so. As it transpired, American forces did move into Austria, but his appeaes to be orimarily because Gen. Eisenhower was concerned about a NAZI Alpine redoubt.

Occupation (1945-55)

The Allies treated Austria as an Axis nation, separating it from Germany and dividing it into occupation zones. Vienna in the Soviet zone was like Berlin divided into occuption zones. The three occupation zones of the Western Allies (America, Britain, and France), as in Germany were eventually combined. Stalin set up long-time Socislist leader Karl Renner in Vienna to head a provisionl government as soon as they took Vienna (April 1945). Occupied Austria was gioverned by an Allied Control Council made up of reprepresentstives if the four Allied powers. Each has the right to veto Council actions. The Western Allies at first objected to Renner , but eventually accepted him. Renner was not a Soviet toddy and began acting a little mre independently as soon as he Americans arrived in Vienna (July 1945). An early issue was Soviet demands to control Austrian oil fieds. Unlike Germany, the geography of Austria did not lead to an easy partition. Vienna like Berlin was deep in the Soviet sector. British Deputy Undersecretary of State Oliver Harvey cut to the quick the Austrian problem, "Were it not for the strategic importance of keeping Austria separate from Germany, we could let this flabby country stew. It is clear that Austria is doing next to nothing for herself and we shall have the greatest difficulty in infusing life into her after the war. There are no political leaders inside or outside the country who command any following. Austria will fall into the first arms which are opened to her."

Elections (November 1945)

The Allies allowed Austria soon to hold elections after the War (November 1945). They were free elections throughout the country, including the Soviet zone. Stalin actually thought the Communists would do well in elections. Not in Poland and some countries, but in Romania, Hungary, and Austria--especially eastern Austria where the Red Army was firmly in place. [Appelbaum, p. 206.] Eastern Austria of course meant Vienna, the country's only large city. The Communists electoral results (a mere 5 percent of the vote) made it clear that the Austrians had no desire for Communism. Only four Communists won parlimentary seats despite Stalin's high expectations The vote was surely influenced by the wave of rape perpetrated by Red Army soldiers. [Petrov, p. 258.] This was different than Germany where there had been support for Communism among the large industrial work force before he NAZIs. The Allies would not allow elections so quickly in Germany. Unlike the rest of the Soviet Eastern European empire, the Allied presence in Vienna and beyond the Soviet Zone made it impossible for the Soviets to arrest and intimidate non-Communist politicans. The election results seem to have caused the Soviets to delay any permanent action in Austria. And Stalin appears to have dcided to punish the Austrians by stepping up property seizurs--reparations. Soviet thinking did not change until after Stalin's death (1953).

Austrian Parliament

The Soviets were surprised at the extent of the Communists defeat in the Gerneral Election (November 1945). The Communists only won 5 percent of the vote. The coalition of Christian Democrats (ÖVP) and Social Democrats (SPÖ) won the election, 90 percent of the votes. This gave control of the nbew Parliament and the authority to select the Federal Chncellor and cabinet. The coalition selected the conservative Christian Democrat Julius Raab. The Soviets immediately vetoed Raab who had been he was also active in the Heimwehr paramilitary arm of right-wing political forces during the 1930s. The coalition then deferred to President Karl Renner who appointed Leopold Figl (1902–65). Figl emerged as the leading politicl figure in occupied Austria. He was a pre-War Austrian politican with economic posts. He spent most of the War in NAZI concentration camps and jails. He was appeaently marked for execution at the time the Red Army entered Vienna and freed him from a NAZI jail. He was a democratic politican, but Soviets reluctantly acceopted him because there were so few Austrian Communists and unlike Eastern Europe they were not in complete control. [Bischof 2009, p. 176.] His anti-NAZI record and economic expertise made him acceptable to the Western llies. Figl's government working effectively with buisiness (Chambers of Labor, Trade and Agriculture) and labor (Austrian Trade Union Federation-- ÖGB) addressed the food and coal crisis through strict regulation of both food distribution and labor wages. The Soviets were not pleased with Figl, but accepted the choice. The Soviuets responded with a massive and coordinated expropriation of Austrian businesses and natural resources.

Quasi Occupation

The Allies signed the Second Control Agreement (June 28 1946). This in practical terms basically ended the occupation. It meant that popularly elected Parliament was de facto was removed from Soviet and Allied control. Parliament's acts could now be overturned only by unanimous vote by all four occupying powers. It did not stop the Soviet from using its veto, but the Soiviet veto were usually voided by the Western Allies. [Bischof 2009, p. 172.] This democrsatically elected government supported by the western Allies was difficult for the Soviets to deal with. The Austrians passed more than 500 laws that the Soviets tried to block, but were out voted on the Allied Council. This began a gradual emancipated from foreign control Talks on formal Austrian independence were first held (January 1947). They immeditely deadlocked on "German assets" in Soviet possession. [Bischof 2009, p. 178.] This meant a state-corporation set up by the Soviets -- Administration for Soviet Property in Austria (USIA).

Immediate Post-War Economic Situation (1945-47)

Austria as in Germany experienceed severe economic problems immediately following the War. The war damage was enormous. The economy made some progress, but the Austrians faced major problems. The Austrian economy, including USIA enterprises (companies seized by he Soviets), were reporting output of about 60 percent of pre-Anschlus levels, but production of consumer goods fell below the average only a little over 40 percent. [Lewis, pp. 141–42.] The most severe problem was food, but it was scarecely the only problem. Coal which at the time drove the economy another mjor pronlem. And the problemn persisted for 3 years. During the War, NAZI Germany mintained food supplies by seizung food in occupied countries and shipping it to the Reich. This of course ended as NAZI Germany (which included Austria) collapsed. Austrians faced starvation. The basic problen for post-War Austria was that some 65 percent Austrian agricultural output and nearly all of its oil field were locatef in the Soviet zone and the Soviets were not motivted to share. This meant that food was simply not available within the Western zones to feed the population. Austrians survived (1945 and 1946) on a near-starvation diet, and daily rations were still under 2,000 calories (until late 1947). [Lewis, p. 142.] And after the stunning failure of Communist candidates in elections, the Soviets set about using their control of domestic food production to take control of the country. Initially UNRRA provided most of the Austrian food relations. UNRRA was a United Nationa Agency, but at this earky stahe, irt mean mostly American food deliveries. UNRRA provided nearly 65 percent of Austrian food rations (March 1946 to June 1947). [Lewis 2000, p. 143.] Austria had very little in the way of coal, the primary fuel for industry and home heating. The country's coal came from Germany, shiped by the Americans on easy credit terms. A drought woirsened the situation, reducing both farm harvests and hydroelectric electrical generation which was important in Austria (1946). Chancellor Leopold Figl, who the Soviets grugingly accepted managed to work out a compromise between the Chambers of Labor, Trade and Agriculture (CLTAF) and the Austrian Trade Union Federation (ÖGB). This managed to address the food crisis through strict regulation of both food and labor markets. Wage increases were tightly limited and linked to food and coal prices. An annual price-wage agreement was negotiated by the Figl Government. The ÖGB agreed to limit wage increases were limited and the CLTAF linited food prices--beginning a price-wage agreements. This would be the basis for a consensus between elected and non-elected political elites that developed as part of post-war Austrian democracy--the Austrian Social Partnership and Austro-corporatism. [Bischof et al. 1996.] The food situation worsened as a result of the severe winter (1946–47) and a disastrous summer (1947). Potatoes were an important part of the Austrian diet. A relatively small area of agricultural land is suitable for grain farming. And the 1947 potato harvest was only 30 percent of the pre-war harvest. [Lewis, p. 143.] And to make matters worse: UNRRA ended aid shipments, inflation increased, and State Treaty talks failed because of Soviet intransigence. Food simply ran out (April 1947). The government was unable to find the food necessary to distribute needed rations. The result was inevitable. A violent food riot rocked Vienna (May 5). [Lewis, p. 47.] The Communists were responsible for the violent tyrn. After having filed miserabky at the balot box, they rurned to violence, seeing tht Austrians were turning to the West. Another food riot in Bad Ischl turned into a pogrom targeting Jews (August 1947). [Berg, p. 165.] Workers complaining of food shortages stagd strikes British-occupied far western Styria (Novemnber 1947). [Lewis, p. 148.] Chancellor Figl charged that the food riots were a failed communist effort to stage a coup. Historians debate this, but the Communists were clearly trying to stir up troble as Austrians look increasingly to the West. And staged riots were a common mechnisms the Soviets used boith in Eastern Europe and Western Europe (Frnce and Italy) to seize power. The diufferene was that in Austria the Western Allies were present. The food situation was only managed by massive American food assistance. The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA), primarily funded by the United States also provided food shipments. When this ended, other American efforts kicked in. The U.S. government began shipments of $300 million in food aid. Austria was part of the U.S. Government Aid and Relief in Occupied Areas (GARIOA) program. In addition to Government aid, there was the private CARE Program (1945-46). Individual Anericans contributed money to finance food packages to starving Europe. During the food crisis, the United States financed some 88 percent of Austrian food imports (1945-547) and 57 percent (1948). This was all before the American Marshall Plan. Food was the major problem, but not the only economic problem. Another problem was policies implemnted in the Soviet Zone. Rather than promote recovery, Soviet authoriuties after the failure of Communist candidates in November 1945 election launched a massive wave of seizures, essentially enforced reparations. The post-War Potsdam Agreement permitted confiscation of 'German external assets' in Austria. The Soviets used the rather vague language to seize industrial infrastructire of value in their occupation zone. [Bischof 2009, pp. 176–177.] Within a year, the NKVD oversaw the dismantling and shipped back to the Soviet Union that has been valued at some $0.5 billiom. [Bischof 2009, p. 175.] This also occurred in Germany proper. It has been questioned how much of these reprations were actually reassembled and put to productive use by the Soviets. American High Commissioner Mark W. Clark resisted Soviet seizures and reported on them to the State Department. As a result the seizures were largely limited to the Soviet occupation zone.

Marshall Plan (1948-52)

The European Recovery Program (ERP) comminly known as the Marshall Plan because it was proposed by United States Secretary of State, George C. Marshall was based on program of self-help backed by massive American financial assistance. The pumped some $14 billion into the economy of 16 participatinhg European countries. There were cionditions attached, basically that Europe begin to move toward economic integration. Marshall proposed the ERP and it was passed by Congress after heated debate. It mean that unlike World War, the United States was going to remain involved in Europe. Austria is a very small country and thus received a small share of the ERP aid, but it was a massive stimulus of the small Austrian economy. The first ERP aid reached Austria (summer 1948). Direct ERP aid amounted to $217 million during the first year. There was also indirect" aid of $64 million. This meant 'drawing rights' for trade between participating ERP countries. Although financed by the United States, 88 percent of the food 73 percent of coal (at the time a vital part of the economy) came from neigbiring Europen countries partivipating in the ERP. The ERP created a 'Schilling side' to support the Austrian currency. American ERP goods were transferred to an ERP 'counterpart fund'. This amounted to a reservoir to finance investments in the Austrian economy. As one Austrian hitorian puts it succintly, "The Marshall Plan had provided Austrian policy-makers with the means to make the country economically independent." [Bischof] An Austrian economist writes, " Without generous foreign aid, Austria would have been plunged into such misery for an indefinite period of time that a slow redevelopment would only have been possible at the greatest cost and under the most extreme hardship." [Nemschak]

Uneven Economic Development

The Allied western sector of Austria prospered much more than the Soviet eastern occupation zone. The Austrian economy, at least the Westen sector along with German had begun to recover (early-1950s). Voralberg in the French sector had begun to benefit from Swiss tourists. The economy of the Soviet sector lagged behind the western sector. The school photo here is from Schwechat which was near Vienna in the Soviet sector. The Soviets imposed strict limitations on the population in their sector. Austrians there were not permitted even to go into Vienna without giving a reason to Soviet occupation authorities and getting their permission. Notice that most of the children in the school portrait on the previous psgr didn't have shoes. In fact, children's shoes in Soviet sector were rare. Children might wear them when going to school and during the class, but the afternoon being free, children often took them off for activities. The rural setting of the school may also be a factor. A reader writes, "In Vienna 1953-55 I never saw school children without shoes, even in Soviet sector. At this time, leather pants (Lederhosen) were rather expensive. Many of these boys are wearing lederhosen which probably handed down from older brothers bought before the War." We suspect that shoes in Vienna were more common than in the counrtyside. And we have found many Austrian school images showing barefoot children.

Unification and Neutrality (1955)

After Stalin's death in the brief thaw in East-West relations and before the Hungarian Revolution, a rare descalation occurred in Austria. The Soviets noe with Khruschev in control decided to signal a new direction in its policies toward Europe. The Soviet focus from he beginning was on Germany. The Soviets apparently decided that ending the occupation by neutraling Austria, might convince voters in West Germany to consider that future. There was also the cost of the occupation. The Soviets thus agreed to withdraw from Austria. The State Treaty established Austria as a neutral nation along the lines of Switzerland (1955). [Steininger] Whuch is why Austria never joined NATO and is still not a member. Notably, the Soviet acceptance of Austria's military neutrality carriued no touch of 'Finlandization' in which the peace treaty involved defense obligations to the Soviet Union. The Americans were willing to accept real neutrality because they believe that free to choose, Austria would inevitably politically and culturally gravitate West which is exactly what happened. [Wagnleitner]. The new Austrian Government moved to normalize relations with neighboring countries. Austria like Switzerland did not participate in European unification. Austria was the only neutral country along the Cold War Iron Curtain, although Yugoslavia to the south was ambiguous. Vienna became the location of Cold War diplomatic intrigue. Austria emerged on the diplomatic stage when it tried to play a co-leading role in the group of neutral and non-allied countries (1970s). This movement gradually became a plattform for anti-Western propaganda and meaningless left-wing posturing. Foreign Minister and then Chancellor Bruno Kreisky defined his 'active neutrality' policy as very pro-Western after the signing of the State Treaty in 1955. Austria proceeded to gravitate toward the West, esopecually a meaningful engagement with Europe (1980s).

Economic Recovery

Austria after World War I suffered economically because it was cut off from the traditional markets of the vast Hapsburg eastern lands. After World War II, Austria adjusted to being a small country, developing a vibrant hy economy with high social standards and high value industries. The small market problem was solved by trade arangements with Euroopenb Economic Community (EEC) which evolved into the European Union (EU). This had been prevented by the 1955 State Treaty. After the end of the Cold War, Austria began to negotiate entry in the EU (1989) and becane a full member (1995).

Cold War Role

Austria after the occupation has been described as the Cold War 'darling'. And Austrians themselves began to see themselves as playing a 'special role' (Sonderfall) in the Cold War. It was able as a neutral to play a useful role as a mediator. The Sioviets seemed to have oreferred it over other neutrals klike Switzerland and Sweden, perhaps due to its position blong the Iron Curtain. Some Austrians supported the idea of acting as a 'bridge builder' between Communist East and liberal West. As a result, Vienna was chosen as the site of important summit meetings. Eisenhowe was set to meet with Khrushchev before the Sioviet leader decided to make an issue out of the U-2 invident (1960). Kennedy met Khrushchev (1961). Carter met Brezhnev (1979). Extended arms-control conferences (Conventional Force Reduction Talks) were held in Vienna. Important United Nations agencies like the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) were headquarted in Vienna. Austria played a role in the negotiations over the Conference of Security and Cooperation in Europe which led to the important Helsinki Accords (1975). This was a crucial step not only in European détente, but to liberalization of the Soviet police state.

End of the Cold War

The Cold War ended basically with the fall of the Berlin Wall nbd collapse of Communist regimes in Eastern Europe (1989). Austrian began reestablishing traditional links with the countrues of Eastern and Central Europe including the Balkans. Austria has built trading and banking ties as well as invested in these countries as they bemerged from Communist economics. At the same time Austria cmpleted its integration into the Euyropean Union (1995). As a result, Audtria became a part of the developing 'Common Foreign and Security Policy' and (later under the Lisbon Treaty) 'European Security and Defense Policy'. Thus Austria along with Central andEastern Europe has become a part of the expsnding European political, and economic integration process. The Austrians have realigned its foreign policy with Brussels. Austria has still not joined NATO. Therevcontunues to some support in Austria fr the neutralist policies it pursued for many years.

Sources

Applebaum, Anne. Iron Curtain, 1944-56 (Dounbleday: New York, 2012), 556p.

Berg, Matthew Paul. "Caught between Iwan and the Weihnachtsmann: Occupation, the Marshall Plan and Austrian Identity," in Günter Bischof, et al. The Marshall Plan in Austria (Transaction Publishers: 2000), pp. 156–84.

Bischof, Günter. "Allied plans and policies for the occupation of Austria, 1938–1955," in Rolf Steininger, et al. Austria in the Twentieth Century (Transaction Publishers: 2009). pp. 162–189.

Bischof, Günter et al. (1996). Austro-Corporatism: Past, Present, Future (Transaction Publishers: 1996).

Bischof, Günter. "Rebuilding Austria - The Marshall Plan," Austrian Press & Information Service in the United States--The Zine.

Churchill, Winston. Memoirs.

Lewis, Jill." Dancing on a tight rope: The beginning of the Marshall Plan," in Bischof, Günter et al. The Marshall Plan in Austria (Transaction Publishers: 2000), pp. 138–155.

Nemschak, Franz. Director of the Austrian Institute of Economic Research--WIFO (1955).

Steininger, Rolf. Austria, Germany, and the Cold War: From the Anschluss to the State Treaty 1938-1955 (New York: Berghahn Books, 2008).

Petrov, Nikita. "The internal troops of the NKVD in the system of Soviet organs of repression in Austria. 1945–1946," in Günter Bischof et. al. New perspectives on Austrians and World War II (Transaction Publisher: 2009), pp. 250–276.

Wagnleitner, Reinhold. Coca-Colonization and the Cold War The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria After the Second World War (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994).

Created: 10:56 AM 1/13/2017
Last updated: 10:56 PM 12/5/2018