World War I: British Protectorate--Egypt


Figure 1.--These British soldiers are having a cammel ride around the pyrimides and Spinx. The Egyptian boy is helping with the cammels. Egypt because of the Suez Canal was an important battlefield in both World Wars,albeit from opposite directions. The british built up an important force in Egypt. Egyotians dud not, however, play any role in the fighting nor did they show any interest in the arab Revolt.

Egypt after the construction of the Suez Canal (1869) became strategically important in the Euroean power balance. It represented a key link in the sea lanes connecting Britain and India--Britain's most important collony. Tewfiq Pasha attempted to modernize the Egyptian economy. He turned over financial control to the British who began to administer Egypt increasingly like a colony in some respects. Britain did not, however, get involved in social policy, except bnning slavery. Egyptian nationalists resented Tewfiq's seeming submission to the British. Orabi was first significant Egyptian political and military leader to rise from the fellahin, ‘Urabi was involved mutiny that developed into a general revolt against the Anglo-French consortium that dominated Khedive Tewfik's government (1879). Tewfik attemoted to defuse the sitution by appointing ‘Urabito the cabinet as Minister of war. He initiated reforms of Egypt's military and civil administrations, but anti-British riots in Alexandria resulted in a British bombardment and invasion (1882(. The British deposed ‘Urabi and his asociates. The British and French shelled Alexandria and seized Ismailiyya. The Allies defeated Orabi's army at Tel El Kabir. The British reinstated Tewfiq as a subseriant puppet. Orabi was exiled. Mustafa Kamil assumed leadership of the Egyptian nationalist movement. By the outbreak of World War I, Egypt has become essentially a tacit British colony in economic terms, but not social terms. An Egyptian Government remained in place. The Ottomans entered the War (November 1914). The Sultan declared a jihad, hoping to raise an Islamic revolt in Egypt, the only Allied controlled area within striking distance. The real prize was of course the Suez Canal. The Ottomans launched an unanticipated attack from Palestine, but were repulsed after heavy losses. The limited Ottoman logisticical capability was a major factor. The Sultan's call for jihad had no impact. We are not entirely sure why. We suspect tht while the Egyptians wanted to get rid of the British, but had no interest in Ottomn rule. After the Ottoman attack, the British began building up a substantial force in Egypt. They were reiforced by the Australia-New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs). And the British provided some limited support to the Arab Revolt. This aid and a young academic, T.E. Lawrence, helped turn a limited, isolated revolt into a major movement. Despite British support for the Arab Revolt, Egypt played no role in the fighting between the British and Otomons. The British launched an offensive into Palestine and with the Arab Army supported by Col. Lawrence on its flank pulverized the Ottomon Army and seized Damascus (1918). Fouad become Khedive, but was consided under British control by most nationalists. Sa'ad Zaghloul demanded autonomy which the Brish rejected (1918). The British arrestedand deported him to Malta. This caused anti-British riots. After the War, the British ended the protectorate and recognized Egyptian independence (1922), although retaining some controls over the government, economy, amd most critically the Suez Canal. Fouad was proclaimed King of Egypt (March 1922). The British began reducing their footprint in Egypt until the NAZI's seized power in Egypt and began to change the strategic ballance (1933).

Protectorate (1882)

Egypt after the construction of the Suez Canal (1869) became strategically important in the Euroean power balance. It represented a key link in the sea lanes connecting Britain and India--Britain's most important collony. Tewfiq Pasha attempted to modernize the Egyptian economy. He turned over financial control to the British who began to administer Egypt increasingly like a colony in some respects. Britain did not, however, get involved in social policy, except bnning slavery. Egyptian nationalists resented Tewfiq's seeming submission to the British. Orabi was first significant Egyptian political and military leader to rise from the fellahin, ‘Urabi was involved mutiny that developed into a general revolt against the Anglo-French consortium that dominated Khedive Tewfik's government (1879). Tewfik attemoted to defuse the sitution by appointing ‘Urabito the cabinet as Minister of war. He initiated reforms of Egypt's military and civil administrations, but anti-British riots in Alexandria resulted in a British bombardment and invasion (1882). The British deposed ‘Urabi and his asociates. The British and French shelled Alexandria and seized Ismailiyya. The Allies defeated Orabi's army at Tel El Kabir. The British reinstated Tewfiq as a subseriant puppet. Orabi was exiled. Mustafa Kamil assumed leadership of the Egyptian nationalist movement. By the outbreak of World War I, Egypt has become essentially a tacit British colony in economic terms, but not social terms. An Egyptian Government remained in place.

The Suez Canal

Suez is an Egyptian port at the northern-most point of the Red Sea. And it is located only about 100 miles from the Mediterranean coast. Thus since ancient times trade routes developed between the Mediterranean and Red Sea. Frenchman Ferdinand De Lesseps visited Egypt (1832). He began to plan a project to construct a canal across the Isthmus of Suez, but little progress was made until 1854 when he visited Egypt again. The Viceroy of Egypt, Said Pasha, granted him a concession for his proposed canal. With the backing of Emperor Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie, he raised half the funds by popular subscription in France. Work was begun in 1859 and the canal was formally opened in 1869. De Lesseps who surmounted enormous engineering, diplomatic, and administrative difficulties was awarded many honors and widely proclaimed throughout France. The Canal itself had a significant impact on world trade and for Britain helped to strengthen the connection with their main colony--India. It thus became a critically important Imperial lifeline that Britain would defend in three major wars. This had been a factor even before the Canal was built. Napoleon launched an offensive in Egypt even before beginning his great coninental campaigns (1798-1801). There were three major campaigns involving the Suez Canal after it was built. The Central Powers (Ottomans with German assistance) tried to take it from the east in World War I (1915-16). The Axis powes (Italians and Germans) attempted to take it from the west in World War II (1940-42). Egyptian President Gamul Abdul Nassar rose to power promising to destroy Israel. He seized the Canal, an action apllaued throughout the Arab world. In a coordinated action, the Israelis struck first at the cEgyptian armies preparing to invade Israel (1956). The British and French used this as an exuse to seize the Canal, but were forced to give it back when the United States refused to support thecaction. The Canal also feartured in subsequent Middle Eastern wars and for a time became the border between Israel and Egypt. The development of Middle Eastern oil increased the importance of the Canal. Arab instability, however, reduced the reliability of the Canal. Thus the Western countries developed super-tankers which reduced the importance of the Canal.

Ottoman Empire Enters the War (November 1914)

The Germans launched World War I by attacking Frabce thriugh Belgium (August 1914). The Ottoman Empire has close rekations with Germany and with the success oif German arms, especially on the eastern Frint, saw the possibility of winning back trritory lost to the Russians as well as refaining control of gypt and the priceless Suez Canal. World War I was a far away conflict until the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers and entered the War (November 1914). Sudently Egypt and Suez was on the font lines, separated only by the baren Sianai Desert. The Ottomans entered the War. The Sultan declared a jihad, hoping to raise an Islamic revolt in Egypt, the only Allied controlled area within striking distance. The real prize was of course the Suez Canal.

First Sianai Offensive (1915)

The Ottomans launched an unanticipated attack from Palestine, but were repulsed after heavy losses. The limited Ottoman logisticical capability was a major factor. The sultan's call for jihad had no impact. We are not entirely sure why. We suspect tht while the Egyptians wanted to get rid of the British, but had no interest in Ottomn rule. The Ottomans after entering the War launched the first Middle Eastern campaign, an effort to take the Suez Canal. Suez was a vital lifeline of the British Empire. The Germans pressed the Ottomans to attack. The Ottomans thus launched the campaign. The Ottoman campaign was organized by Minister of Marine Djemal Pasha advised by German Chief of Staff Kress von Kressenstein. The Ottomans attacked across the Sinai Peninsula from their base at Beersheba (January 14, 1915). The Ottoman Suez Expeditionary Force consisred of 25,000 men. They sought to strike across Siani and surprise the British and seize the Canal before the British had fully prepared their defenses. The problem for the Ottomans ws there were no roads or rail lines to Suez. They had to move 300 km across the formidable Siani Desert. This proved to be a major impediment, probanly saving the British who were not yet well prepared. As a result, the Ottoman attack across Sinai failed and the small British force in Egypt was able to repulse the Ottomans (1915).

British Buildup

The British began building up forces in Egypt. They made Egypt into a training ground for the Empire's reserve of Commonwealth and Indian troops. This was delayed by the demands of the Galipoli campaign. They were reiforced by the Australia-New Zealand Army Corps (ANZACs).

Galipoli (1915)

The Allied Galipoli Campaign is common seen as a great blunder and failure. It certainly failed. And launching an offensive ithout the capaikity of winnkng mkfgt rightly be seen as a blunfer. The strategic concept bhinf Galipoli, was however, hrdly a blunder. Russia was vital to the Allied war effort and extre=me efforts to save Fussia by getting supplies through to the poorly equipped Russins was an objective of the highest order.

Second Ottoman Offensive (1916)

The Ottoman forces launched a second attack across the Sinai (August 1916). They were again repulsed, this time at Romani. These two offensives did not result in heavy casualties on either side by the standards of World War I.

The Egyptian Army

Egypt has arguably the oldest national army in the world. In more recent times, Egypt along with the Arab heartland was invaded and conquered by the expanding Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–17) was the second conflict between the Egyptian Mamluk Sultanate and the rusing Ottoman Empire centered un anatolia. The Ottoman victory led to the collaose of the Mamluk Sultanate and the Ottoman annexation of the Levant, Egypt and the Arabian Peninsula into their Empire. The Arab heartland thus became Ottoman privinces. And the Ottomans became a minority in a huge empire with lsrge Balkan Christian and Arab Muslim populations. And it men that the Egypt and other Arabs no longer had a national army, although Arabs erved in the Ottoman Army. This situation continued for four centuries. After Napoleon's oncursion in Egypt (1798-1801), Ottomon governor Muhammad Ali Pasha seized of power in Egypt and declared himself Khedive of Egypt. Muhammed Ali esentially declaed inepenendence, but nomimally expoused fealty to the Ottoman Sultan. He began building the first Egyptian Army in four centurues knowing that the Ottomans would atempt to restablish control. He purchased modern European weapons and obtaind European military advisers. He was ths able to defeat the Ottoman Army sent to reeestablish contol. The Ottomans were by this time a decling power and referred to as the Sick Man of Europe. The Ottomans also began to lose their hold on the Chritian Balkans. Muhammed ali with his modern Army was able to detach the Levant and Hejaz from the Sutn, although the Ottomans were subsequently able to restablish control over these Arab-populated areas. Muhammed Ali's Egyptian Army participated in a sries of wars: the Greek War of Independence (1820s), Egyptian–Ottoman War (1831–33), and the Egyptian–Ottoman War (1839–1841). The Ottomans were unable to reestablish control over Egypt. Muhammed also used his Army to invade and conquer Sudan to the South, uniting with Egypt for the first time in millenia. Britain abd France constructed the Suez Canal whichopened (1869). Britian established a veiled protectorate over Egypt when nationlist forced threatened to seize the Canal (1882). Ahmed Urabi led a revolt against European and Ottoman domination of Egypt. Both Egyptian military officers and civilins were involved, but the Army as a whole did not resist.

The Arab Revolt

The Ottoman Turks had controlled the Arabs and the Middle East for four centuries. Sharif Husayn encouraged by his correspondence with the British launched the famed Arab Revolt against the Ottoman Empire (June 5, 1916). Husayn declared himself "King of the Arabs" (October 1916). The Arab revolt in the Hejaz broke out, surprising the Ottomans (June 5, 1916). British and French agents played a major role in inducung the Arab rising. The Arabs, however, had no real idea as how to fight the Ottomans. The were also deeply divided by tribes which made any united action dufficult. The Arab Revolt was led chiefly by Col. T.E. Lawrence, Emir Faisal, and his father Sherif Hussein--'King of the Hejaz'. British aid and an unliquely young academic, T.E. Lawrence, helped turn a limited, isolated revolt into a major movement. The first major success was tsking the Ottoman garison at Aqaba. The Arab Revolt broke out in full force (January-September 1918). Conducted by guerrelia tactics conceived by Col. Lawrence Lawrence himself is a man of legend. He was a junior inteligence officer stationed in Egypt with the British Army. He had an academic background, hardly a person one would except to launch an important guerilla war. When weeks of arriving in Arabia, however, he helped the Arabs seize Aquaba whivh the Brirish thought was inpregnable and then launch the successful military operations of the Arab revolt. Lawrence helped knit together poorly armed, often hostile desert tribes and wage war against their well-armed Turkish overlords. They began blowing up trains in hit and run ttacks that the Turks were unable to defend against. The attraction for the Arab warrirs was largely the booty to be obtained in the attacks and not forging an Arab state. This was the vision of Sharif Husayn and Emir Faisal, along with Lawrence. [Schneider] The Arabs in a year largely took control of Arabia cutting rail lines. Isolated Ottoman garrisons were besieged throughout the Peninsula. The Ottomans hard pressed by the British in Palestine were unable to deal with the Arab Revolt. The War then moved to Palestine as the the British pressed their attack from Egypt.

Martial Law

Martial law declared by the British provided the authority to oversee foreign European residents including some foreign agents. The British interned individual subjects of hostile nations seen as dangrous. Marial law was also used to police prostitution and the sale of alcohol. The British also used the Capitulations of the Ottoman Empire to good effect.

Egyptian Role

Egypt played a limited role in the actual combat between the British and Ottomons, but the support role they played was important to the eventual British victory. The actual status of Egyot was ambiguous. Egypt was not a colonu or a fully inependent state. The protectorate was somewhere in between the two. Thus it was not an independent ally or a participant in the War, never declaring war on either the Ottomans or the Grmans. Nor was it a pat of the British Empire or a membe of the allied coalition. Its position was unique among the World War I belligerent powers. Britain had recently appointed High Commissioner Sir Reginald Wingate and British Commandr General Sir Archibald Murray agreed that Egypt's contributions to the War would be restricted to the use of the country's railway and Egyptian personnel. The former British commander, Gen. Sir John Maxwell had proclaimed when the Ottomans entered the War that Britain would not force Egypt to aid the British war effort (November 6, 1914). [Falls, pp. 364-65.] Some 15,000 Egyptian volunteers had joined the Egyptian Army (by 1917). Most of these men were deployed in the Sudan to duscourge restive tribesmen from rising up. Three battalions joined the British Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF). The British had also signed up 98,000 volunteer workers--the Egyptian Labour Corps (ELC). Some 23,000 membrs of the ELC were posted overseas. The Egyptian and British Governments hesitated to recruit more volunteers. Authorities concluded that further recruitment could threaten agricukturl production, including needed food and cotton. Production falls might desblize the domestic situation. [Falls, p. 365.] The rail system was another issue. The British had requisitioned locimotives and rail stock for military purposes. Local authorities believed that any furthr diversion would impair the supply of cotton, sugar, cereals and forages. The only component held in reserve for potential emergencies was the Khedivial Railway from Alexandria to Dabaas. The ELC and the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps proved very important during the Sinai campaign and would prive even mor importabt during the decisive Palestine campaign (1917-18). As the Palestine campaign unfolded, the fighting moved beyond the Egyptian border. This only increased the need Egyptian personnel. The British began turning the volunteers recruited into forced labour, although they ere well paid in Egyptian terms. The labor system ws run through local 'mudirs'. [Falls, p.366.] Mudirs were Egyptian administrators.

British Palestine Offensives (1917-18)

The British despite a substantial buildup, failed to take the heavily defended Ottoman fort at Gaza (March 1917). Gaza proved to be a tough nut. The British failed again at Gaza (April 1917). This resulted in major changes to the British command. After the two failurea at Gaza, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George recalled Sir Archibald Murray and replaced him with Edmund Allenby, one of the most competent British commandr of the War and nicknaned 'Bloody Bull' (June 1917). He was ordered to capture Jerusalem by Christmas 1917. He was given substabtial reinforcements. Allenby faced the formidable Ottoman line at Gaza-Beersheba, The Ottoman line was capably overseen the German commander Erich von Falkenhayn, the former army Chief of Staff who had earlier orcestrated the Verdun offensive, a pivotal battles of the War. Allenby renewed the offensive into Palestine. Alenby fought the Third Battle of Gaza and the Battle of Beersheba at the same time (October-November 1917). The British Egyptian Expeditionary Force smashed through the Ottoman lines and finally captured Gaza. The climatic battle for Palestine was fought at Mughar Ridge and Junction Station (November 1917). Jerusalem fell (Decembr 8), two weeks before Allenby's deadline. The final battle of the campaign was fought at Megiddo, the site of a famous ancient battle (September-October 1918). Allenby's masterful handling of his forces is said to have presaged German Workd War II Blitkrieg tactics. Megiddo broke the back of Ottoman armies in the Levant. The British with the Arab Army supported by Col. Lawrence on its flank pulverized the Ottomon Army and seized Damascus (1918). Fouad become Khedive, but was consided under British control by most nationalists. Sa'ad Zaghloul demanded autonomy which the Brish rejected (1918). The British arrestedand deported him to Malta. This caused anti-British riots.

Egyptian Independence

After the War, the British ended the protectorate and recognized Egyptian independence (1922), although retaining some controls over the government, economy, amd most critically the Suez Canal. Fouad was proclaimed King of Egypt (March 1922). The British began reducing their footprint in Egypt until the NAZI's seized power in Egypt and began to change the strategic ballance (1933).

Arab Nationlism

The British advanced to Damascus with the Arab Army on its flank. This ended Arab-Allied unity. The Arabs expected independence. The British and French wanted to control the areas liberated from Ottoman rule. Rather the Arabs lands were diviided by the British on the basis of the Sykes-Picot agreement (February 1916). They becane Keague of Nations mandates after the War. Another complication was promises made ti the Jews in Balfour Declaration (November 1917). The Arabs had been quiesent under Ottoman rule. This was not to be the case under British and French rule. The Arab Revolt helped to generate nationalistic sentiment. Probably more importnt was that the new colonialn rulers were Christians. This was not forseen in the Koran. The Holy Koran, the very words of God, foresaw Muslims ruling Christians and Jews under Shria Law. Thus not only were the Britishband French Chrisians, but they introduced the alien concept of secular law. The Koran recognizes both Christians and Jews as 'People of the Book', but were second class subjedts of the Muslim state--dhimmī. Dhimmī who were subject to taxes for the privlidge of being residence in a Muslim state. [Koran 9:29] Muslims were the rulers, a status annoited by Allah himself. Arabs saw this as the natural state of affairs and the reverse an aberation. This is why many Muslims even today object to secular government. And the very idea of a Jewish Homeland in the middle of the Arab lands was anathema to most Arabs. The Arabs were realistic to understand that the Christian powes with their might armies might gain control of Arab lands, the Jews were a different matter. Possible Jewish control was seen as an affont to the Arab nation. There are many Koranic references to Jews. While one of the People of the Book, verse after verse in the Koran depict the Jews as a despised, contemptable people. The very idea of bing rued by Jews was replusive to most Arabs. Most Westerners fail to understand why the Arabs can not tolerare ceeding just amall sliverv of land to the Jews. They fail to understand that more is involved than the land, which is not inconequentil. It is thec very idea of acceoting the idea that such a cintemptable people should control the land and challenge the Arab people. To further complicate the Arab situation for the Allies, oil was discovered in the Arab lands. This meant that good relations with the Arabs was particularly important for the British after the War.

Sources

Falls, Cyril; G. MacMunn (1930). Military Operations Egypt & Palestine from the Outbreak of War with Germany to June 1917. Official History of the Great War Based on Official Documents by Direction of the Historical Section of the Committee of Imperial Defence. Volume 1. (London: HM Stationery Office, 1930). OCLC 610273484.







CIH







Navigate the CIH World Wat I Pages:
[Return to Main World War I country page]
[Return to Main World War I conduct page]
[Return to Main Algerian history page]
[Aftermath] [Alliances] [Animals] [Armistace] [Biographies] [Causes] [Campaigns] [Casualties] [Children] [Countries] [Declaration of war] [Deciding factors] -------[Diplomacy] [Economics] -------[Geo-political crisis] [Home front] [Intelligence]
[Military forces] [Neutrality] [Pacifism] [People] [Peace treaties] [Propaganda] [POWs] [Russian Revolution] [Signals and intelligence] [Terrorism] [Trench warfare] ------[Technology] ------[Weaponry]
[Bibliographies] [Contributions] [FAQs] [Images] [Links] [Registration] [Tools]
[Return to Main World War I page]
[Return to Main war essay page]
[Return to CIH Home page]




Created: 8:07 AM 5/29/2014
Last updated: 2:22 AM 10/3/2014