Figure 1.--.

After World War I, the Allies rapidly demobilized. Huge fleets of aircraft were sold off or scraped. The Versailles peace treaty banned Germany from having an air force. The British after much debate created a separate air service--The Royal Air Force. The French, however, kept their assets part of the Army, but eventually created a separate force--Armée de l'air (1934). The Italians create a separate air force -- Regia Aeronautica (1923). The Americans kept their air assets part of the Army--the Army Air Corps, but with a surprising degree of autonomy. the Navy was allowed to have its own air service. The Japanese pursued a similar approach. The Russians were absorbed with revolution, but would eventually create the separate Red Air Force. All of these forces wrestled with the basic question of what the role of the air force was. The Americans and British focused on strategic bombing largely out of a desire to avoid the appalling land based casualties of World War I. The other countries to varying degrees put more emphasis on supporting the land-based campaigns of their armies. The French wee concerned about bombing because they were so close to Germany. The Japanese thought they were immune from bombing because of the Pacific Ocean. The Americans bought into the idea of bombing largely on theoretical grounds, showing their basic autonomy from the Army. The 1920s was an era of budget restrictions, in part from the growth of pacifism, revulsion of World War I and a general feeling that there would never again be another great war. This began to change in the 1930s, in part because of the Depression following the Wall Street crash (1929). Fascist Italy was an important power, largely because the Democracies cut back military spending even more. While the RAF has serious problems with funding, money was fund for a futuristic early warning system--the Chain Home Network. The NAZIs seized power in Germany and launched a massive rearmament program--with the Luftwaffe a primary recipient of the funding. The militarists seize power in Japan and launched a massive armament program. As a result of Stalin's industrialization program, the Soviets built the world's largest air force. Aggression was the inevitable result, beginning with the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931) and the Italian seizure of Ethiopia (1935). Along with these alarming political developments, stunning advances in technology was occurring. which by 1935 had rendered all existing aircraft obsolete. A kind of aerial version of Dreadnought. This was a huge benefit to NAZI Germany because the new aircraft they were building out classed the existing air fores of the democracies. And the democracies were tragically slow to respond. The democracies had the industrial power to out produce the Germans and Japanese, but refused to do so largely because of public opposition to military spending. . An exception was the American B-17 Flying Fortress, only possible because it cleverly was sold as hemispheric defense. As a result, as Europe moved toward war, NAZI Germany had achieved air dominance, something that has never occurred for any time in World War I. This would a major factor in the first 2 years of the War, but would change dramatically when Britain and especially America turned their industrial might to war--especially air power. Something like half of American and British military spending during World War II would involve air power.

World War I

The 1920s

After World War I, the Allies rapidly demobilized. Huge fleets of aircraft were sold off or scraped. The Versailles Peace treaty banned Germany from having an air force. The British after much debate created a separate air service--The Royal Air Force. The French, however, kept their assets part of the Army, but eventually created a separate force--Armée de l'air (1934). The Italians create a separate air force -- Regia Aeronautica (1923). The Americans kept their air assets part of the Army--the Army Air Corps, but with a surprising degree of autonomy. the Navy was allowed to have its own air service. The Japanese pursued a similar approach. The Russians were absorbed with revolution, but would eventually create the separate Red Air Force. All of these forces wrestled with the basic question of what the role of the air force was. The Americans and British focused on strategic bombing largely out of a desire to avoid the appalling land based casualties of World War I. The other countries to varying degrees put more emphasis on supporting the land-based campaigns of their armies. The French wee concerned about bombing because they were so close to Germany. The Japanese thought they were immune from bombing because of the Pacific Ocean. The Americans bought into the idea of bombing largely on theoretical grounds, showing their basic autonomy from the Army. The 1920s was an era of budget restrictions, in part from the growth of pacifism, revulsion of World War I and a general feeling that there would never again be another great war.

Th 1930s

Everything began to Change in the 1930s, in part because of the Depression following the Wall Street crash (1929). Fascist Italy was an important power, largely because the Democracies cut back military spending even more. While the RAF has serious problems with funding, money was fund for a futuristic early warning system--the Chain Home Network. The NAZIs seized power in Germany and launched a massive rearmament program--with the Luftwaffe a primary recipient of the funding. The militarists seize power in Japan and launched a massive armament program. As a result of Stalin's industrialization program, the Soviets built the world's largest air force. Aggression was the inevitable result, beginning with the Japanese seizure of Manchuria (1931) and the Italian seizure of Ethiopia (1935). Along with these alarming political developments, stunning advances in technology was occurring. which by 1935 had rendered all existing aircraft obsolete. A kind of aerial version of Dreadnought. This was a huge benefit to NAZI Germany because the new aircraft they were building out classed the existing air fores of the democracies. And the democracies were tragically slow to respond. The democracies had the industrial power to out produce the Germans and Japanese, but refused to do so largely because of public opposition to military spending. Too often leaders are blamed, but leaders in democracies were responding to voter demands. An exception was the American B-17 Flying Fortress, only possible because it cleverly was sold as hemispheric defense. Giving America the ability to participate in another European Wars would have been a non-starter. As a result, as Europe moved toward war, NAZI Germany had achieved air dominance, something that has never occurred for any time in World War I. The turning point was 1935 steps. Hitler took two decisive steps. First, he re instituted constipation. Without conscription Hitler could not go to war. And then he announced the existence of the Luftwaffe which he and Göring had been building since 1933.

World War II (1939-45)

German air dominance would a major factor in the first 2 years of the War, but would change dramatically when Britain and especially America turned their industrial might to war--especially air power. Something like half of American and British military spending during World War II would involve air power, but that would take time to develop. The British would narrowly avert disaster. The only reason that was possible was bcause of the Channel. And only began Britain began to build fighter in the nck of time. The Atlantic Ocean bought America more time. The British averted disaster, but were unable to save France or project power until America joined the War. Air power was in part a matter of numbers. Of course quality is important, but quality with out numbers has little value. Munich woke up Britain (1938). It was the fall of France (1940) that woke up America. Suddenly vast amounts of money were poured into defense spending. President Roosevelt began talking about tens of thousands and then 100s of thousands of aircraft. The Germans and Japanese thought this as bombast, and dismissed the President's announcements, believing it was possible. Actually American industry out produced that Roosevelt asked for. And in the process created aircraft that out performed German and Japanese aircraft, It was the Germans who began bombing cities. But given World War II technology, to destroy cities you needed vast fleets of bombers. Here not only did Germany not develop a strategic bomber, but they did not have the industrial capacity to build fleets of them. America and Britain did. Of course destroying cries was important because that was where the war industries were located. German cities were left piles if smoldering rubble leaving the NAZIs without the ability to make war. But America and Britain did not have to chose between building a strategic or tactical air force. They built both. At the beginning of the War, only Germany had a well developed close air support system. By the end of the War, it was the Allies that perfected close-air support. And German soldiers not only lacked close air support, but knew if there was an aircraft in the sky knew that it would be an Allied plane.

1938

Hitler now had a recreated German military including the new Luftwaffe which was shown off in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), Hitler began flexing his new strength. First he annexed Austria (Mach). The he went after Czechoslovakia leading to the Munich Crisis (September). He was already prepared to go to war. British Prime-Minister Chamberlain caved in to his demands. The Luftwaffe and the danger of another German bombing campaign was a major fear. We know that because the British were preparing to evacuate children from London and the other major cities. The Czechs were prepared to fight even if they were abandoned. They had strong border defenses, but no significant air force. Abandoned by Britain and France, President Edvard Beneš submitted. The Czechs were forced to cede the heavily German-populated Sudetenland. And then Hitler authorized what might be called the beginning of he Holocaust--Kristalnacht (November).

1939

Hitler was actually disappointed that he did not get his war over the Sudetenland. Surprised with the weak response of the Allies, he accelerated his demands. He seized Memel in Lithuania and more shockingly he seized what was left of Czechoslovakia (March). Hitler and Göring browbeat Dr. Emil Hácha into surrendering Czechoslovakia by threatening to bomb Prague (March) They threatened to use the Luftwaffe to level Prague, a beautiful medieval city. This was the turning point. Only 6 months after assuring Chamberlain that he 'wanted no more Czechs". Now, even Chamberlain now had to admit that appeasement had been a failure. After the fall of France, Hitler would be surprised that the British wold not make peace. Of course, part of the reason was how he had shown the British that his word was of no value. He could not be trusted. Even the most intense advocate of peace could not deny this. With Europe headed toward war, Britain and France were desperate for aircraft. These purchase orders helped expand the American aircraft industry. This would be very beneficial for America, because the United States could use increased capacity when it began a serious preparedness. Hitler with Czechoslovakia under his belt, tuirned toward Poland. The British sunned a mutual defense pact with Poland and tried to negotiate a pact with the Soviets. Instead the Soviets decided that an alliance with Germany. The Molotov-Ribentrip Pact offered much more than the Allies were willing to offer--especially the Baltic states (August 23). This meant war. Germany invaded Poland (September 1). The British and French desperately attempted negotiation. Hitler ignored them and Britain and France declared war (September 3). Hitler was surprised. Given their weakness at Munich, he expected them to back down again. The Soviets invaded (September 17). While the British ad French declared war, they did nothing to help Poland. The Polish Army was defeated within weeks. When the Soviet invaded, further resistnce was useless. Expecting air attacks, the British evacuated school children. The air attacks did not come. The Luftwaffe did not have the capability yet of bombing Britain. The Luftwaffe did not have much in the way of long-range aircraft or bases within range of Britain. Hitler wanted an immediate attack in the West. His generals dissuaded him. The Germans had used their ammunition stockpile and strategic materials like oil. A campaign in the West was not feasible and the weather was deteriorating. As a result, the newspapers began thinking about the Phony War/Sitzkrieg.

1940

As in World War I, the British blockaded German ports. Thus imputing oil and other strategic materials from distant suppliers was not possible. Germany was rescued by its new Soviet ally. As part of the Molotov-Ribbentrp Pact, the Soviets shipped huge quantities of the oil and strategic materials that Germany needed for their Western Offensive. Denmark fell in hours. Norway was a harder not to crack, but it was the Luftwaffe made the difference. The Luftwaffe would also be a large part of the German success in the Western offensive. The terror bombing of Rotterdam caused the Dutch to surrender--just what the Czechs feared. The all important crossing of the Meuse was made possible by the Luftwaffe which suppressed the French artillery. This made possible for the Panzers to race to the Channel, cutting of the British and French First Army. The British Expeditionary Force was successfully evacuated in large part because of the air cover supplied by RAF-Fighter Command. One impact of the fall of France was a wake-up call in America. Defense appropriations bills were rushed though Congress, including massive n creases in aircraft construction. The Battle of Britain followed (July-September). It would be the first German reverse of the War. And often ignored, air forces were the most technologically dependent of the three familiar services. At the time, Gobbels propaganda was trumpeting German technology. Yet German technology failed. Having failed to destroy the RAF. The Luftwaffe began the Blitz. but bombing at night mean that targets could not be hit. Hitler had not yet learned that wars could not be won by knocking down houses. The British had learned that Bomber Command did not have the capability of bombing Germany, but it began designing and and building the long-range aircraft needed.

!941

The German continued the Blitz into March, but it had no impact on British war industries. It did have an impact on the Luftwaffe which lost air crews and planes. The largest and last important raid on London was (May 10-11). Wars are expensive. The Germans financed the war by exploiting occupied countries and slave labor. Britain was going bankrupt. American Lend Lease essentially provided Britain an open check book (March). This not only meant aircraft purchases, but the purchase of other equipment which enabled Britain to focus is spending on aircraft. The Germans struck first in the north (April). The Germans began shifting the Luftwaffe east preparing for Barbarossa, the invasion of the Soviet Union.. This began with a stunning success, destroying the huge Red Air Force, essentially in a week--an astonishing achievement. Even so, ground forces would have less air support than the early German offensives, in part because of the losses in the air battles over Britain. Given how close the Germans took to taking Moscow, this could have made a substantial difference. Also the fact that Barbarossa had not been complete with a short summer campaign by October was also important. The Luftwaffe found it difficult to rate in forward bases during the Russian winter. Thee was little Luftwaffe when the Red Army launched a Winter Offensive. The Luftwaffe did conduct a small air lift to supply a surrounded pocket. At the end of the year, Japan which had joined the Axis stunned the United States by launching the Pacific War. This was done by an unprecedented air attack on the American Pacific Fleet. America was stunned by the impressive capabilities of Japanese aircraft which destroyed American air power in Oʻahu and sank eight battleships--seen as the core of the Pacific Fleet . Unfortunately for the Japanese, the American carriers were not in port. This enabled the Japanese to carry out a 6-month rampage seizing thee The resource Dutch East Indies and much of Southeast Asia--the Southern Resource Zone (SRZ). The tip of the Japanese spear was the Kido Butai--six fleet carriers and their enormously proficient pilots. The SRZ gave the Japanese the resources they saw as necessary, especially oil, to complete the conquest of China and conduct the Pacific War. The strike did not, however, affect the war-making capabilities of the United States, it did , however, set these capabilities in full motion. New plants were opened and existing plants began operating 24/7 At the same time, the American Volunteer Group(AVG--Flying Tigers) arrived in Burma. They could not stem the Japanese advance into Burma but the AVG did end the Japanese bombing of Chinese cities. .

1942

In large measure, World War II was settled in 1942. The decisive campaign of the War was the Ostkrieg. Germany's best chance of winning the War was in 1941, if they had been able to destroy the Red Army. The Red Army Winter offensive (1941-42) badly damage the Wehrmacht. Hitler was forced to make serious choices as to priority. One of these choices was to cut back on weapons development, especially development that could not be immediately deployed. One of the choices he made was to cut back on jet aircraft research. The Germans recovered from the Red Army Winter Offensive, but was a diminished force. They no longer had the capacity for a full summer offensive. In 1942, the offensive would be limited to the south. The Germans struck into the Caucuses, primarily to obtain badly needed oil. It at first went well, but Hitler ignored his generals and left the Sixth Army in Stalingrad badly exposed. Red Army Operation Uranus cut off and surrounded the Sixth Army creating the Stalingrad pocket which the Luftwaffe was unable to supply. Because the actual fighting was primarily in the East, the war in West is often not understood. German manpower was primarily committed to the Ostkrieg, but industrial output primarily went to support the War in the West. This curious phenomenon was the primary reason the Germans failed in he East. The Ostheer did not receive the resources and supplies that they needed. The reason for this was primarily because the War in the West while not involving a major commitment of manpower was an air and sea war requiring enormous industrial support. The Ostheer was for the most part not motorized, moving east with horse carts. It was 1942 that RAF Bomber command began receiving the long-range aircraft needed to conduct the strategic bombing campaign--notably the iconic Avro Lancaster. At the same time the American Eighth Air Force began arriving in Britain preparing to join Bomber Command in bringing the War home to Germany. The first thousand bomber raid was conducted (May). Both Britain and America steadily increased aircraft production. Luftwaffe squadrons were scaled back from the East. Huge quantities of quantities and artillery were denied the Ostheer and used to build defenses around Germany's industrial cities. The fighting in North Africa finally reached a conclusion. Rommel's tactical brilliance almost defeated the British Eighth Army, The Desert Air Force was probably the major reason he failed. And then as the Battle of Stalingrad was being fought off, the British defeated Rommel's Afrika Korps at El Alemein and days later an Anglo-America force landed in Morocco and Algeria. Immediate defeat was delayed by a Luftwaffe air lift to Tunisia. It was the Luftwaffe's last important offensive of the War. Japanese forces in the Pacific ran rampant For the first half of 1942. This began to change with a naval task force bombed Tokyo and other Japanese cities (April 1942). The Japanese though their cities wee immune from bombing. The Doolittle raid was a pin prick, but a rude awakening to the Japanese militarists. Kido Butai as challenged in the Coral Sea (May) and then devastated at Midway (June). Later in the year, Japanese expansion ended at Guadalcanal (August). The fight for Guadalcanal was largely about an airstrip--Henderson Field.

1943

American, British, and Soviet industry by 1943 was fully mobilized. And the prodigious factory output was turning the tide on the battlefield. In the Ostkrieg, the German Summer Offensive failed at Kursk. American cockpit instrumentation and aluminum was assisting the revitalization of the Red Air Force which was achieving dominance on the battlefield. The Red Air Force was a tactical force. The Western Allies unleashed their strategic bombers on the Reich. President Roosevelt and prime-minister Churchill announced the around the clock bombing of Germany. The Eighth Air Force now established in Britain began daylight bombing raids into the Reich. Bomber Command continued to bomb at night. After the Allies invaded Italy (September 1943), the Americans establish airfields in and around Foggia to initiate bombing raids from the south as well as to attack the Ploesti oil fields in Romania. The Germans put up a fierce air defense , both fighters and FLAK. Both requiring enormous industrial output. Both fighters and artillery were badly needed by the Ostheer. It became apparent that fighter escort was needed which the U.S. Air Force set out to produce. What they created was an American air frame married with the British Merlin engines--the P-51 Mustang, the finest propeller fighter of the War. The first P-51s began reaching American squadrons in Britain (December). In the Pacific the Australians and Americans slogged it out with the Japanese in the South Pacific. In the process, Japan's cadre of well trained carrier aviators reassigned to land bases were largely deplete. New recruits were hastily trained. And by the time the Japanese had lost major positions after Guadalcanal fell (January 1943), the Japanese withdrew their major fleet units. They were building new carriers, but new pilot training was much less rigorous. Adm. Nimitz launched the Central Pacific campaign opening up a new front beginning with Tarawa and the new Essex Class carriers (November 1943). Tarawa was a blood bath, but it showed how Japanese island garrisons could not resist American invasions. And American assaults tactics improved after Tarawa. The island-hopping campaign was about gaining airfields. And in 1943, American aviators began receiving high performance advanced aircraft. The Marines got the F4U Corsair. The Navy got the F6F Hellcat. Both had performance characteristics far beyond those of the Zero. The Essex-Class carriers and Hellcats fundamentally changed the dynamics of the Pacific War. The Hellcats began showing up in force with the Central Pacific drive aboard the new Essex-class carriers (November 1943).

1944

The Red Army steadily advanced in the Ostkrieg. Now with significant support from the revitalized Red Air Force. The American daylight bomber squadrons now had long-range fighter protection. And in Big Week the Luftwaffe which had been largely withdrawn from the Ostkrieg was destroyed in the skies over Germany's industrial cities. The Luftwaffe lost pilots in the Ostkrieg m but was largely destroyed in the West (February). Now not only did the Americans have better planes, but they faced increasingly inexperienced and poorly trained pilots. Falling oil reserve made it impossible to train new pilots. This left Germany's industrial cities at the mercy of steadily expanding fleets of Allied bombers. The Luftwaffe introduced the Me-262 jet, but in such small numbers to have any real impact. The enormously expensive Vengeance (V-1 and V2) programs killed civilians, but were of no real military value. Strategic bombing was at fist deprioritized when Gen. Eisenhower took control of Allied bombers to support preparations for D-Day. The bombers were used to cut off German forces in France, especially the Atlantic Wall from supplies and enforcement--the Transportation Plan. Then the most devastating ground actions of the War occured. The Western Allies landed on D-Day (June) and destroyed German forces in France, now now benefiting from a superb ground support tactical system--Gen Pete Qusada's 9th Air Force.. In the East, as part of Operation Bagration, the most important remaining German formation, Army Group Center was destroyed (June-July). Only after the land victories in the West, was the strategic forces restored to the Bomber Boys (September). American and British bomber began the destruction of Germany's war making capability. Most of the damage to Germany's industrial cycle occurred at this time. They were turned into mounds of smoldering rubble. By the end of the year the Soviets and Western Allies were at the borders of the Reich. It as this time that Hitler launched the Bulge Offensive (December 1944). He chose bad weather when Allied air assets were grounded or unable to attack through thick cloud cover. Bad weather does not last for ever, and when the skies cleared, Allied air power played a major role in destroying the attacking German forces. In the Pacific the Imperial Fleet finally came out to engage the American Big Blue Fleet. This occurred only when the Americans invaded the Marianas. The Japanese knew about the new American B-29 Super Forts could reach Japan from bases in the Marianas. The Japanese has assumed that the Pacific ocean protected their wood and paper cities from the kind of bombing they were conducting against Chinese cities for years. The Japanese had new carriers and aircraft. They did not have well-trained pilots for the Battle of the Philippine Sea. This led to the great Marianas Turkey shoot. American pilots with the new F46 Hellcat destroyed Japanese carrier and land air squadrons. It was the last real attempt at carrier operations. The Americas secured the Marianas and began to build the bases needed for the B-29s. Initial bombing operations (October) were, however, disappointing. Defeat in the Philippines Sea was followed by the Battle of Leyte Gulf (October). The Japanese were reduced to using their carriers as decoys. The Imperial Fleet was decimated and was left unable to conduct any more fleet actions. The defense of Japan was now based on island garrisons willing to fight to the death and Kamikazes suicide pilots

1945

The Americans and British continued the methodical destruction of Germany's industrail cities. The Allies had been bombing Germany, but most of the damage was done (beginning September 1944). This continued in 1945. Soviet and Western armies were still taking significant casualties. The bombing only began to slacken after the Dresden tragedy (February 1945). Allied armies began entering the Reich from the East, South and West. Hitler hoped that in the West the Rhine would be a barrier, but the Americans seized a bridge at Remagen and the British staged a major amphibious operation. The Germans had fought fiercely west of the Rhine, but after the Western Allies breached the Rhine barrier began surrendering in large numbers. In the East the Germans continued fighting, but faced the overwhelming supercity of the Red Army. The final climatic battle was fought in Berlin. By this time the primary effort of what was left of the Germany Army was to get as many people into what would be the western occupation zones as possible. The NAZIs surrendered ending the war n Europe (May 1945). U.S. Air Force commander Gen. Hap Arnold was disappointed in the initial results of the strategic bombing campaign. He turned to Gen. Curtis Le May who had played a major role with the Eight Air Force in Europe. Le May adopted new tactics for the B-29s. Raids with his low-level area bombing began (January). The results were dramatic and the USAF began destroying Japanese cities and ability to make war. Japan had launched the Pacific War secure in the belied that the huge expanse of the Pacific made it impossible to bomb Japan. But technology changes war fare. The B-29 Superforts had the range to reach Japan once the Marianas was taken. And rather than immune from bombing, Japan as the country most vulnerable because its cities largely consisted of wood and paper. And under Le may, the B-29s began setting them afire. Iwo Jima was deemed important to supporting the bombing effort leading to one of the toughest fights the Marines faced (February-March). Next came Okinawa, leading to a fierce battle on land and the largest Kamikaze assault of the War (April-June). Okinawa was needed as a staging area to support the invasion of Japan planed for November. Often not mentioned is how Okinawa bases would have impacted the air war. The bombing f Japan was limited by the number of B-29s. Some 800 B-29s were stationed on the Marianas. And their use was limited by the extremely long flight to get go Japan. The Marianas were 1,500 south of Tokyo. This limited the number of trikes. But Okinawa was 950 miles south of Tokyo, but only 500 miles south of Kyushu where the Americans were planning to invade. This meant the Allies could have transferred there thousands of bombers (Lancasters, Mosquitos, Liberators, and Fortresses) and already trained crews in Europe to Okinawa and could have easily tripled, if not more, the bombing effort. Pf course this was not necessary. The Americas dropped the atomic bombs and the Emperor capitulated (August).

Created: 9:04 AM 10/8/2025
Last updated: 8:19 AM 10/10/2025