Figure 1.-- Tōjō Hideki (東條 英機 ) was the primary Japanese World War II leader, a military man who became the country's political leader. It is unclear what is his connections with the many Japanese atrocities were. It is clear that no one was ever punished for them. He was a dutiful parent and intent that the 100 million Japanese hearts must beat as one. After the Pacific War he helped launch went diusaterously wriong, he had to approve military training for school children (Ketsugo) and send them intoi the factories to sustain war prduction.

Tōjō Hideki (東條 英機 ) was the primary Japanese World War II leader, a military man who became the political leader. Unlike the other Axis laeders and Stalin, he was not a dictator. He was instrumental in the final Japanese decision to lanch the Pacific War. He was born in (1884). His father was an army general and he chose an army career. He graduated from the Imperial Military Academy and the Military Staff College. He had very little experiences outside of Japan. He served ly as military attaché in Berlin after World War I. He was imoressed with the Germans. He emerged as a skilled administrator and skillful field commander. He was seen as a stern disciplinarian, becomng known as 'The Razor'. He was appointed commander of the 1st Infantry Regiment (1928). The mutiny of the Tokyo garrison was conducted by thuis unit, but he helped supress it (February 1936). He was appointed chief of staff of the Kwantung Army in Manchuria (1937). Within months Japan had launched the invasion of Chinan. He returned to Tokyo and was appointed vice-minister of war (1938). He was one of the leading advocates of Japan’s Tripartite Axis Pact with Germany and Italy (1940). He was appointed minister of war in the cabinet of Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro (July 1940). Tōjō succeeded Konoe as prime minister (October 1941) Japan was negotiating with the United States at the time, attempting to find a negotiated resolution of the intensifying issues. He committed his government to a Greater East Asia program led by Japan a 'New Order in Asia'. Less than 2 months after he became primn-minister, the Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor, launching the Pacific War (December 1941). The first 6 moths of the War were a steady stream of victories until Miday (June 1942). Once checked the outcome of the war was inevitablke, America's immense industrial power would result in aidal wave of men nd matetiual. He retained control of the Ministry of War and was also minister of commerce and industry (1943). As a result of the loss of Saipan in the Marinanas, Tojo was replaced (1944). With the Japanese surrender (September 1945), Tojo was arrested and tried for war crimes. He was found guilty of war crimes. He was hanged (1948).

Parents

The young Hideki grew up in the Japanese Army. His father was a general, rather like MacArthur, -- Hidenori Tojo, a lieutenant general in the Imperial Japanese Army. The Tojo family came from the traditional samurai caste. The Tojos were, however, relatively lowly warrior retainers for the great daimyōs (lords) which they had served for many generations. [Browne, p. 11.] His father turned to the reformed Impoerial Army after the Meiji restoration. Hedeki's mother was the daughter of a Buddhist priest. This made the family very respectable, but also poor. The Meiji reforms involved abolishung the traditiinal caste system. Even so, the presige of samurai heitage did not disappear.

Childhood

Hideki was born in Tokyo (1884). He was the third son. We know very klittle of his childhood, but given that his father was anArny geberal, we can asuume that it was very disciplined.

Education

The purpose of the Meiji educational system even before the militarusts seized control of thg Government. was to train boys to be soldiers. The message was relentlessly drilled into students from an eraly age. Hideki was a perfect example of what they sought to create. It was virtually ordained that he would pursue an army career. After porimat schho, he spent 7 yers in mikitary schools which provided a disipolined regime beyond that of th rgular schools. There was an emphasis on phyical fitness and frugal living. As in every military school, the cadets weee indoctrinted in the code of the military service which included respect for the emperor and obedience. In the case of the Japanese Army, that meant unquestioning obedience. Notice that the obedience qand loyalty was to the Emperor, noit the goivermnent abnd people. The cadets received a narrow educatiion. It was felt that this help instill mental strength. Indiviutuality was seen as a weakness and should be abandoned. Imagination was also not prised. For Tojo, loyalyuy to the emperor and willingness to die for the emperor were the ultimate goal. [Hosaka] He graduated from the Imperial Military Academy and the Military Staff College. He had very little experiences outside of Japan. That was not seen as a weakness in the Japanese Army. The military education also hammered away at the imperial project. Japan like other major poers needed colonies. Anthat Japan was surrounded by enenies, China, Russia and the West.

Military Career

What sees to advanced his career was anobsession with detail abd routein. As a youngb officer, he was strongly influenced by World War I. He became commited to the idea of total war--the idea that the whole nation much be mobilized. He began to recognize the imprtance of industry and resources. Japanese Army officers had little or no experience outside of Japan. They thus knew nothing of the wider world. Each year, however, a few officers were sent abroad. Cpt. Tojo was one of those officers. He served as military attaché in Berlin after World War I. He was impressed with how the Germans Japanese were holding up after their World War I defeat. He also was impressed with the German officers he associated with while in Japam. He sent his son at hime in Japan numerous light-hearted post cards. One siurce reports he was also detailed to Switzerland. Reyurning to Japan he continued his military career. He emerged as a skilled administrator and skillful field commander. He was seen as a stern disciplinarian, becomng known as 'The Razor'. He was appointed commander of the 1st Infantry Regiment (1928). The mutiny of the Tokyo garrison was conducted by thuis unit, but he helped supress it (February 1936).

Invasion of Manchuria (1931)

The Kwantung Army seized Manchuria without orders from the Government in Tokyo. The Government, however, supported the ensuing military action. Tojo as far as we know was not involved in the seizure of Manchuria. He was, however, just the type of officer that the Japanese Army appreciated--rock solid obedience and discipline. He was Promoted to major general (1933). He made his name in Manchuria which the Japanese invade (1931). He argued for the reorganization of the Japanese Army and the integration of Manchurian resources into what was becoming the Japanese war economy. He beame one of the Army's leading experts on resources, a major issue with resource-poor Japan. Japan lacked almost all of the natural rsources needed by industry and the military--especially oil. Tojo became head of the Kwantung Army's Kenpeitai (憲兵隊) (1935). He had a reputation for going by the book and obeying the rules. This made him look responsible to his superiors, bith military and civilan. [Butow] The Kenpeitai was the Armny's military police. It along with the Tokku (Thought Police) was Japan's secret police forces. After becoming a lieutenant general he became chief of staff to the Kwantung Army in Manchuria (March 1937). TYhis meant the brutal suppression of the conquered Chinese people in what had become the Japanese province of Manchuko. Tojo was promoted to chief of staff of the Kwangtung Army--at the time the most powerful formation in the Japanese Army. Tojo during his time in Manchuraia came under the infuence Yōsuke Matsuoka, a fiery ultra-nationalist and CEO of the South Manchuria Railway whuchwas muchnmore than a railway, but ione of Asia's largest corporations. Tojo also became acquainted with Nobusuke Kishi, the Deputy Minister of Industry in Manchukuo and was basically managuing Manchukuo's Japanese-controlled economy. 【Browne, p. 60.】 Tojo at this time still thought that war with the Soviet Union was his primary resonsibility. Tojo strongly supported Japan's forward policy in north China as the Japanese sought to expand theur control further south into China. Once appointed to Army Chief of Staff (1937), Tojo asttempted to increase Japanese penetration into the Inner Mongolia from Manchukuo. He persinally led units of the 1st Independent Mixed Brigade in Operation Chahar, his only actual combat experience (1937). 【Cowley & Parker, p. 473.】

Invasion of China

Only 4 months later Japan after an incident at the Marco Polo Bridge north of Beijing invaded China proper, launching the < ahref="/essay/war/ww2/camp/pac/china/w2c-inv.html">Second Sino-Japanese War (July 1937). Tojo in Manchuria had nothing to do with this. Col Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki of Aligator Creek fame seems to have preciputated the action. The Kwantubg Army at the time was seen as the mosrt elite force in the Japanese Army. Within months Japanese forces in northern China launched the invasion of China. Again they did this without any authorization from the Government in Tokyo. The Militarists launched the invasion of China (1937). He then began to shift his attention to political affairs. He became Vice Ministerv for War (1938). They achieved great victories, but became bogged down in China and unable to complete their conquest, in part because of Amrican aid to the Chinese Nataionalists. Tojo had began to shift his attention to political affairs. He became Vice Ministerv for War (1938). They achieved great victories, but became bogged down in China and unable to complete their conquest, in part because of Amrican aid to the Chinese Nataionalists. This is what Toko begsn werestling with -- "What now?

Family

We know very little about his family. He married Katsuko Ito as a young man (1909). Not only was Tojo the polar oppoisite of President Roosevelt, but his wife was the polar opposite of Mrs. Roosevelt. When his colleagues would come to their home for conferences, she would take their coats and carefully brish them. If buttons were missing, she would sew them on. ​He had three sons and four 4 daughters. We kniow nothingb about them, but he appears to have been a dutiful if struct father. A granddaughter activeky supoorts the resvisionist line that he was a kindlky nman forced into the War by the Americans. She is in part correct. The American oil embargo forced Tojo to make a decision. He had to end the brutal coinquest of China or wage war. It was, hoever, Tojo that chose war. And his granddaughter has no regard for thge 20 million peoole or more that perished in that war. Sad to say, this attude is no unusual in Japan. There us great smypathy for the Japoanese people who died in the War, b=very little for the people in other countries. The mnemorials at Hirmoshima and nagasaki are beutifully done. But there is no attempt to explain WHY America dropped the bomb or atoine for the 20 million are more peopole killed by the Japanese military.

Fascist Dictatorship

Militarist Japan had many of the halmarks of fascism, but thgere was no fascist pooiticalmparty. In the case of Japan it was mikitary rule. It is notable that the Japanese miitaists did not require a massive police state structure. The Japanese has the Army's Kenpeitai (Police Corps, 憲兵隊) and the Justice Ministry the Tokubetsu Kōtō Keisatsu/Tokku (Thought Police, 特別高等警察). The number of Japanese individuals, however, was very limited. And there was no concetration camp system established in Japan. The Japanese people complied with the miiitrary's orders. There were some who objected. Nki kne knows how many, but most were wise enough to keep silent. There was no resistance movement. As far as we can tell, the Japanese peoolke had no idea what theur Givernment was diing in their name in occupied countries.

Khalkhin Gol (July 1939)

As Europe careened toward war, Stalin ordered Gen. Georgy Zukov to deal wityh the Japanse norder incurions in Mongolia. The resulting Soviet Red Army victory at Khalkhin Gol and the NAZI-Soviet alliance seems to have reoriented his and it did other Japanese officials orientastion from the Strike North Faction.

World War II (September 1939)

Hitler and Stlin launched World War II (September 1939). This mean thast the Europwean colonial powers could no longer defend their Far Eastern colonies. Tojo was already a leading voice for the Japanese Militarists who called for an end to British and American influence in the Far East and the seizure of their colonial possessions, joining the Strike South Fasction. War in Europe provided great possibilities, at first for seizing thevFrench colonies. Tojo became War Minister (1940). It is at this time that Japan began to move into Indo-China, intenssifying diplomatic tension with the United States which had broken into the Japanese diplomatic Purple Code and thus able to follow Japanese diplomatic (but not miliatary) moces in some detail. Gen. Tojo became Prime-Minister and essentially a military dictator (October 1941). The militarists now had complete control of the Government. The problem for Tojo as Prime-Minister was that Japan to complete the conquest of China needed oil. Britain was fully engaged in Europe and the Battle of the Atlantic, the Americans were not -- although still not well armed. And the American Philippine Islnds stood between Japan and the resources they so desperately coveted in the British and Dutch controlled Southern Resource Zone, especially the oil. Extensive negiotiatuins took place between the Japanese and the United States. The fundamentsl American position was that the oil Japan wanted could not begin flowing again until Japan withdrew from China. This meant that Japan would either have to give up its primary goal of conquering China or go to war wih the United States. Tojo chose the military sollution -- war with the United States. Tojo was aware of American industrual strength, but like his military colleagues was convinced that Japan's marshall spirit could ovewhealm what ever matererial advantages America possessed. It was Tojo who ordered the attack on Pearl Hsrborans set in motion yhe expansive military offensive, incliding the inasdion of the Philippines.

Pacific War (1941-45)

Japan's road to war with the United States began long before Gem Tojo rose to power. Tōjō Hideki (東條 英機 ) was the primary Japanese World War II leader, a military man who became the political leader who played a central role in the Pacific War. Tojo returned to Tokyo after the invasion of China began. Prime-Minister Fumimaro Kondoye appointed Tojo as his vice minister of war (1938). After only 6 months in this post, he returned to active service, taking command of the Army aviation. Tojo has been described as having extreme right-wing views. This is true, but within the Japanese military they would not have been seen as extrene. Such views were standard thinking. He was a strong supporter of NAZI Germany, admiring what Hitler was doing in Europe. He feared the the griwing power of the Soviet Union under Stalin. He advocated pre-emptive air strikes the Soviet Union and expanding Japanese boming of China. It should be strssed that Japan began bombing basically undefended Chinese cities 10 years before launching the Pacific War (1931). At the time Tojo and other military commanders had no thought that Japan itself could ever be bombed. Tojo was one of the leading advocates of Japan’s Tripartite Axis Pact with Germany and Italy (1940). He was appointed minister of war in the cabinet of Prime Minister Konoe Fumimaro (July 1940). It should be stressed that at the time that the war mninister was basically chosen by the Army, not the prime minister. He advocated a more aggressive foreign policy and strongly opposed plans by Shigenori Togo to withdraw Japanese troops from China and Korea. Rather his primary interest was completing the conquest of China which he had helped initiate. This set Japan on a colision course with the United States which was demanding Japan withdraw from China and had behan to imposde sanctions. Unlike the other Axis leaders and Stalin, Tojo was not a dictator, he was more of the chairman of the board. He was instrumaental in the final Japanese decision to lanch the Pacific War, but unlike Hitler abnd Mussolkin, war was not a unilateral decision. It was a collective decision wiuth his military colleagues. Tōjō succeeded Konoe as prime minister (October 1941) Japan was negotiating with the United States at the time, attempting to find a negiotiated resolution of the intensifying issues. This was, however, impossible as long as Japan was pursuiing the war in China and Tojo was not about to meet American demands that Japan withdraw. If he hadctried, he would have been removed by his mikitary cooleagues. He committed his government to a Greater East Asia program led by Japan a 'New Order in Asia'. Tojo was not oppised to the Foreign Ministry's efforts to reach a settlement with the United States. He had, however, no confidence in the negotiations. And the American oil embargo meant that Japan had to either with draw from China or launch a war. Tojo ordered the attack on Pearl Harbor which the Navy has been preoaring. The Japanese struck less than 2 months after Tojo becanme prime-minister (December 1941). This launched the Pacific War. Thec decision was niot as irratiinal as often depicted. It was based on the presise that NAZI Germany had defeated the Soviet Red Army. Unfortunaley for Tojo and Japan, on the day that the Japanese carrier aircraft the Red Army launched a countrer offensive before Moscow shoiwing that they were in no way defaeted. The first 6 months of the War were a steady stream of victories making Tojo enormously popukar. This came to a crashing stop at Midway (June 1942). Once checked the outcome of the war was inevitable, America's immense industrial power would result in a tidal wave of men and material.

Removal (July 1944)

Tojo retained control of the Ministry of War and steadily expanded his authority. He added the posts of home minister and foreign minister. From February 1944 he was also Commander in Chief of the General Staff. This essentially moved him toward the status of dictator. All of this was not popular with amy senior commanders, especially as the War had gone so disasterously wrong for Japan. As a result of the loss of Saipan in the Marinanas, Tojo was replaced (1944). Iroinivally while Americans hated him for launching the oacifuc War, he wsas uinpopular in Japan for failing to win the war. He was allowed the dignity of resighing. He was allowed to quietly retire. Comapre this to this Axis partners. Mussolini after the Fascist Council removed him, arrested him. There was no open attempt to renove Hitler--no one dared. And the Bonb Plot resulted in a bloody reprisals. The currios aspect of his removal was there cwas no change of polict. Japanese commanders contiunued the failed military strategy that bhad already proven such a disaster and was now going to get even worse with American possession of the Marianas which brought the Home Islands into range of the the B-29 Superforts.

War Crimes Trial (1945-48)

With the Japanese surrender (September 1945), Tojo was arrested by the American occupation authorities. He shot himself in the chest when the American Mikitary police showed up at his home. He survived and after being nursed back to health. Many scorn his failed suicide. The Allies tried him as a war criminal. He was found guily and hanged (1948).

Sources

Browne, Courtney. Tojo The Last Banzai (Boston: Da Capo Press: 1998).

Butow, Robert. Tojo and the Coming of War.

Cowley, Browne and Geoffrey Parker. The Reader's Companion to Military Histor (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt: 2001).

Hoisaka, Masayasu. Hideki Tojo and the Emperor's Era (1979-90)./

Created: 6:19 PM 10/3/2020
Last updated: 6:19 PM 10/3/2020