Figure 1.--Canada was rich in natural resources, but rubber was not one of them. This created a crisis when the Japanese seized Malay and Borneo where most of the world's natual rubber was produced. Here we see a Canadian rubber drive in the Rosemont district of Montreal. The boys were collecting all spare rubber products for the War effort. (April, 29, 1942). Rosemont was and still is a mostly working middle class area. The problem was solved by crash American program to produce snthetic rubber and create rubber plantations in tropical areas under Allied control. Photo source: Bibliothèque et Archives Nationales du Québec/National Library and Archives of Quebec.

Canadian mobilization for World War II would play an important role in the Allied war effort, just as its military contribution out of all proportion to the country's relatively small population. The Home Front mobilization and impact on the future in many ways was similar to America in part because of a degree of coordination. There were, however, important differences. The most obvious other than the industrial capacity of America was that there was no extended period of neutrality. The Canadian people, except for the Quebecois (French-speaking majority of Quebec province), supported the war effort from the point that Britain declared war on Germany after the Germans invaded Poland. Unlike World War I, the Government delayed the formal declaration of war a few days (September 10, 1939). This seems to have been to demonstrate the declaration was one of an independent country. It also provided a few days to rush American military equipment over the border before the American Neutrality Law restrictions kicked in. It would take President Roosevelt nearly 3 months to begin changing the American Neutrality Laws. The Department of Munitions and Supply oversaw the mobilization of the economy and the transition from consumer goods to war production. This was limited at first because of Canada's relatively limited industrial sector. This changed after Pearl Harbor when American investments led to a substantial expansion -- new factories, transportation, and communication. The existing motor vehicle industry was significantly expanded for tank and truck construction. One of the most important industrial effort was expanding shipyards and repair yards and opening new ones. One of the most important efforts was to build escorts for the Atlantic convoys, a very important aspect of the Battle of the Atlantic. Over 1,000 warships and cargo vessels were built, along with thousands of auxiliary craft, small boats and others. [Pritchard] Canada began the War almost without a navy and ended the War with one of the world's largest. Canada also acquired an air force and an aviation industry. As in America, unemployment lingering from the depression disappeared. Canada played a key role in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. It was much easier to train pilots in Canada than Britain, not only was the Luftwaffe absent, but aviation fuel did not have to shipped to Britain. Conscription as in World War I was a controversial issue. Conscription was another major difference with America. Once America entered the War, the whole population was all in and there was no significant resistance to conscription. Most of the Canadians who fought in Europe were English speaking volunteers. As in America, many men who joined the forces were replaced in factories by women. This and other issues were overseen by the the National Resources Mobilization Act. Canada also shown in food production. Canada with it vasts western plain had a an enormous potential. Even so, they shipped such large quantities to Britain that food rationing had to be introduced. Except for the Quebecois (French-speaking majority in Quebec), the non-British population supported the war effort. And after the War, Canada benefited from European immigration. As in America, the Japanese were interned and treated even worse. Canada may not have emerged from the War more united as was the case in America, but it did not come out bitterly divided as might have been the result of conscription. And the country in the post-War era had a much greater sense of independence and self confidence, reflected in a new flag.

Role

Canadian mobilization for World War II would play an important role in the Allied war effort, just as its military contribution out of all proportion to the country's relatively small population. The Canadian populatin at the time war broke out was only 11 million. One of Hitler's many miscalculations was just calculating the power of Britain and ignoring the Dominions. Individually they had small polkations, but collectively the Dominion people and their resources would play an important. And none more than Canada--the largest of the Dominions.

Coordination with America

President Roosevelt was the first American president to make an official visit to Canada (1936). He thus had a solid working relatin with Prime-minister Mackenzie King even before the War. They met again just before the War when King Gerge VI and Qeen Mary visited meric and Canada (June 1939). It would take President Roosevelt nearly 3 months to begin changing the Neutrality Laws to acilitate cooperation with Canada. . King would lead Canada thrughout the War and 3 years of postwar reconstruction and now stands as the most imprtant leaders in Canadian history. Roosevelt and King et again (June 1940). Among the important war decisions Mackenzie King made was to link Canadian defense policy with America. He and President Roosevelt signed a defense agreement at Ogdensburh, New York (August 1940). Several arrangements provided for more effective use of transportation facilities on the Great Lakes such as reciprocally easing load-line regulations, allowing lake shipping to carry increased loads of ores and other materials (1941).This led among other matters a massive American building program (roads and bases) in the Yukon and Newfoundland which had only primitive infrastructure before the War. The two countries agreed during the War to increased diversions of Niagara River water above the Falls to increase the electric power generation (1941). A similar arrangement was reached on the Lake of St. Francis on the St. Lawrence River (1942). Roosevelt, Mackenzie King, and Churchill met at the important Quebec Conference, one of the Allied coordinatimg conferences (August 1943). The atomic bomb project was a major subject of discussion. The three leaders ageed that the bom would not be used unless all three agreed to do so. Canada's Home Front mobilization and impact on the future in many ways was similar to America in part because of a degree of coordination. There were, however, important differences. The most obvious other than the industrial capacity of America was that there was no extended period of neutrality. This created an immediate problem. Until ar was declared, the Canadians could purchase arms and equipment in America for their own forcesand for Britain. The United States, however, had passed neutrality laws (1930s). The purpose was to avoild being drawn into another Euopean war. The Canadians fought the War under British command. Military operations were coordinated at American and British staff levels. Home front coordinatin was very different. This was an intense bilateral effort between Canada and America. A web of coperative efforts developed during the War involved a wide range of activities beyond the military. The primary effort was industrial and Canada's industrial capacity was signifiantly expanded, often by projects undertaken by American companies. Canada's remarkable industrial expansion was promoted by American financial arrangements and bilateral economic planning on a continental scale. There was also cooperaton in the research aea. Canada was involved in the Manhattan Project to build atomic bombs. a partner in the combined program for atomic energy research, Canada made significant contributions to the development of the atomic weapon. The two countries worked out extraordinary arrangements to ensure that Canada's industrial capacity was not only fully utilized, but expanded. The United States also ensured that critical shortages did not develop in Canada as a result of the war production.

Support for the War

Canada like the other beligerants sustained serious losses during World War I. The cost was high. Canada's casualties were 67,000 killed and 173,000 wounded, out of an expeditionary force of 620,000 people mobilized (nearly 40 percent of the mobilized forces). [Leach, p. 40.] This was a substantial contribution for a country of 7.5 million people, especially as the Quebecois (French-speaking majority of Quebec province) had avoided service. This was a higher casualty rate than suffered by the Americans. The Government ovewealmingly won an election victory in 1917. Like Britain, Canadians despeartely wanted to avoid another war. There was a general recognition among Anglo-Canadians, that Britain had done everything possible (except military preparadness) to prevent another war. There was, however, nothing like the isolationist movement which developed in the United States. French Canadians were opposed, but that primarily reflected anti-British sentiment and not the same anti-war sentiment that drove the American Isolationists. The Canadian people, except for the Quebecois (French-speaking majority of Quebec province), strongly supported the war effort. And poorly conceived British decision to use Canadian infantry at Hong King (1941) and Dieppe (1942) did not shake Canadian support for the War. This begun from the point that Britain declared war on Germany after Hitler had ordered the invasion of Poland. Unlike World War I, the Government delayed the formal declaration of war a few days (September 10, 1939). This seems to have been to demonstrate the declaration was one of an independent country. It also provided a few days to rush American military equipment over the border before the American Neutrality Law restrictions kicked in. The Canadian people also strongly supported the war effort throughout the War. Historians tend to differ on the impact of World War I on the emerging Canadian natioal identity. Canada's World War II war effort was far more extensive and impactful than that in World War I. And as a result, had a much more significant impact on Canadian society. There was still a feeling at the time that Canada was part of a great British Empire. For whatever reason this idea largely dispated after the War and modern Canadian nationalism began to emerge. Perhaps it was the realization that Canada could no longer depend on Britain for its defense and Canada had to fashion its own national foreign policy, independent of both America and Britain, but based on the assumtion that the country's defense was guaranteed by the United States.

Economic Sectors

Canada was not a major economic power at the onset of World War II. Even so, Canadian food stuffs, direct cash contributions to Britain, and weaponry was a major assetts to the British war effort, especially before American Lend Lease kicked in. Canada also help supply countries fighting the NAZI war machine, most importantly the Soviet Union. Canada was a relatively small country in terms of population, about 11.5 million population. The Canandian economic contribution to the Allied war effort was out of all prooortion to kits small popualtion. And for a small country, Canada had a small industrial base. This was largely because the giant American automobile industry spilled over into Canada. As result, Canada became a major supplier of military vehicles to the British Army. It also like American conveted car manufacturing to aircraft production. And perhaps most importantly creating a whole new industry, creating shipyards to build escort vesseks for the North Atlantic convoys. Interestingly, the Germans occupied several small countries, which had industrial sectors of various sizes. Uniformily within the NAZI Grossraum, output declined and in most instances declined substantially. Canada in sharp contrast substantially increased its industrial output as well as that of other sectors. The Candadian ecinomy mnore than doubled during World Sar II. Canada's large agricultural sector played an important role from the beginning of the War. Canadian food played a major in keeping Brfitain fed and in the War. In addition, Canada was blessed with a host of vital natural resources neeed to wage war. These resources included lumber, minerals, and other resources including of all things rubber -- a resource previously more associated with tropical environs. These resources were fed into both American and Canadanian factories and fed through the North Atlantic convoys to Britain. It was an amazing feat of economic mobilization -- industrial production (ships plsnes, ans vehicles), agricultural products especilly wheat from the vast Prairie; lumber from the Pacific coast; and minerals from all over Canada -- -all injected into the Allied war effort.

Technology

Canadian scientists, technicians, and engineers worked on advanced weapons technology. This included the Manhattan Project--the effort to build an atmoic bomb. Canada played an important role on the project, especially with uranium. Canadian Arthur Jeffrey Dempster discovered U²³⁵ -- the uranium isotope necessary for the bomb (1935). The discovery didn't attract much attention at the time, but in a very few years it proved to be one of the most important scientific discoveries that affected the outcome of World War II. U²³⁵ is, however, very hard to extract and purify. It was Canadian scientists who worked out how to produce it. And Canada was involved in the actual production. Canada's primary input was on �Little Boy�, the Hiroshima bomb. A Canadian scientist determined how much uranium was needed in the bomb, much less than the originally thought. Canadian scientists also worked on the plutonium bombs exploded at , Trinity and dropped on Nagasaki. Canadian scientist Louis Slotin helped assemble the core of Trinity. The 'Fat Man' bomb used virtually the identical design. Canada provided resources and areas for Manhattan Project scientists and technicians. Most of the uranium used for the project was mined in northern Canada, especially mines near Great Bear Lake. At the time of the War, almost all uranium refineries in the world were under NAZI contro. The only one controlled by the Allies was the Eldorado Refinery in Port Hope, Ontario. This is where uranium used for �Little Boy� was refined. Not only did Canada produce the uranium, but they also offered a safe area where scientists could work in a secure location.

Rationing

One of Canada's major contribution to the Allied war effort with its vast Prarie Provinces and highly productive farms was food. Canada not only produced vast quantities of food for itself and its overseas Allies, but set out to limit domestic consumption so that more food was available for the war effort. One author reports, "... the federal government took a series of unprecedented steps aimed at transforming Canadians� diets. The ubiquitous ration book would ultimately become the most vivid and lasting symbol of these efforts � but rationing was just one part of a much larger set of state interventions into Canada�s kitchens. These included a concerted propaganda campaign to promote certain �patriotic� foods, the wartime launch of an unprecedented national nutrition campaign, and the introduction of literally thousands of individual controls on the price, production, and distribution of everyday foods." [Mosby]

Federal Government Functions

The Canadian Government during the War intervened in almost all aspects of Canadian life. The War emergency involved a major shift in the role of government. The same process was at work in America. The initial purose was to administer the war effort an manage a smooth flow of men and material. Andto keep the domestic economy function.. This meant controling inflation and ensuring that the population di not suffer from shortahes, especially food sgortahes. Agencies were created to manage the economy, including the Wartime Prices and Trade Board and the National War Labour Board. The result was a massive growth in the government functions and responsibilities. Federal government spending virtually exploded and the civil service expanded. As the War began to wind down, Prime-Minister King's Liberal Government began to launch important ocial welfare programs. They included a major veterans� benefits program, family allowances, farm price supports, compulsory collective bargaining, and a national housing program. A national health insurance plan was being studied. under consideration�but for the opposition of provincial governments, particularly Ontario and Quebec. World War II was a watershed in Canadian history,much more significant than World War I. The casualties were not as high, but it was a much grater natinal effort. And the Federal Government began to assume the modrn role in managing the national economy.

British Commonwealth Air Training Plan

Canada played a key role in the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. It was much easier to train pilots in Canada than Britain, not only was the Luftwaffe absent, but aviation fuel did not have to shipped to Britain. Canada not only hosted, but paid for much of the cost Air Training Plan. The Plan trained more than 100,000 Commonwealth airmen.

Coscription

Conscription as in World War I was a controversial issue. Conscription was another major difference with America. Once America entered the War, the whole population was all in and there was no significant resistance to conscription. Most of the Canadians who fought in Europe were English speaking volunteers. Except for the Quebecois, the non-British population supported the war effort. The conscription issue could have badly split the nation, but was deftly hanfled by Prime-minister King. The Government called a national plebiscite asking Canadian voters to release it from an earlier pledge on conscroption. The result was that some two-thirds of Canadian voters supported conscription. Only in Quebec did three-fourths of the voters opposed it. The government as a result pursued compulsory service for home defense. rime-mimister King to avoid an Anglo-French break, avoided sending conscripts overseas during the early years of the war. And did not do so unless deemed absolutely necessary.

Women

As in America, many men who joined the forces replacements needed to be found for the factory workers going into the military and new workers for the factoies being built. This and other issues were overseen by the the National Resources Mobilization Act. The Canadian government urged women to fill jobs in war industries. Women were drafted for war work. Ottawa establisged a elective Service and registered all women between ages 20 to 24 years (1942). Large numbers of women entered the work force, many taking jon\bs traditionally seen as men's jobs. The Governmnt estimate that some 439,000 women were in the service sectors of the Canadian economy (1943-44). Another 373,000 women were working in manufacturing with 261,000 working at munitions plants. industries, a large number doing tasks traditionally considered to belong to men. Women, for example, worked in shipyards and in the smelter at Sudbury, and made up 30% of the workforce in Canada's aircraft industry. In adition, many women worked on the farm. Many did volunteer work with the Red Cross, military canteens, and preparing packages for servicemen overseas.

National/Ethnic Internment

Canada as it did during World War I, aain interned nationals from enemy counties at the onset of Wprld War II. This included adult Jewish nationals from those countries. The countries involved cahanged. This meant the Axis coutries, including Germany, Italy and Japan. Authorites also interned Canadian nationals known to have home country symoathies. They were much more judicius about interning Canadian nationals than they had been during World War I. Basically the Canadians followed the British guidelimes on this. The determination here was on nationality, not religion. Thus German Jews were caight up in the interment. A Canadian reader tells us, "Under the influence of Britain, Japanese, Italians and Germans, even Jews were all detained. This meant mostly German Jews. Many Italians from Montreal area were kept in a prison on a small island next to Montreal -- Ste. Helene's Island - where ironically we now have our amusement park. The Germans -- both military POWs and civilians sent here from Britain were held in a few Army camps. My dad because of his leg problems when he enlisted became a camp guard at Farnham, uebec. When on leave it was close enough that he was able to take a short bus ride back to Montreal to have supper at his parent's place. He never knew that many of the prisoners he was guarding were Jewish. It was a secret. They were mostly let go by around end of 1942 -1943. My dad was discharged in '42 because of his leg issues. I showed him a book about the German Jewish prisoners in late 1980s and it nearly freaked him out." The Japanese were treated differently. Not only were the small number of Japanese nationals interned. but ALL Canadian citizens of Japanese ancestry. And their treatment was different than other interned groups, violating basic norms of law and decency. Canada like the United States had a Japanese minority along the Pacific coast, meaning British Colombia. They began to arrive in the late-19th century. There were about 22,000 Japanese Canadians in British Columbia, most were citiens. This included noth people born in Japan and by 1941 their decendents born in Canada. From the beginning, the Japanee and Chinese were descrimited against by Canadians. As in America, there was aoutrage in Canada with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor (December 1941). And this played into the already racist sentiment toward the Japanese-Canadians. Canadian Pacific Railways fired its Japanese workers and most other Canadian industries did the same. Many Japanese were involved in fishing. They were ordered to stay in port. The Canadian Navy seized 1,200 fishing boats owned by Japanese Canadians. Attitudes hardened further when Japanaese ttacked Hong Kong and killed or interned the 2,000 Canadian soldiers there (December 18). The Canadian Government established a 100-mile 'protected area' along the coast from which the Japanese were excluded (January 14, 1942). Aall male Japanese Canadians between the ages of 18 and 45 years were to be removed from the area and taken to road camps in the interior. This was expanded to all people of Japanese racial origin (March 4). The police enforced a dusk to dawn curfew. The Japanese Canadians were ordered to pack a single suitcase each and were taken to holding areas for transport inland. Vancouver's Hastings Park was one of the major taging areas. Some had to wait there for months in poor quarters like animal stalls for months. one of areas where families waited, sometimes for months, to be relocated. The Japanese-Canadians were inally shipped on sealed trains to the interior. There families were separated which seems needlessly and especially cruel. The men were set to work in road gangs. The women and children were housed in wilderness shantytowns. Tthe Canadian government seized and sold their property, including homes, cars, boats, businesses, and all personal property. Mostly it was sold for a pitance and the Japnese received none of it.

Post-war Recovery

After the War, Canada benefited from European immigration. Canada may not have emerged from the War more united as was the case in America, but it did not come out bitterly divided as might have been the result of conscription. And the country in the post-War era had a much greater sense of independence and self confidence, reflected in a new flag.

Sources

Canada Food Board. "What Canada has done," (1918).

Leach, Norman. Passchendaele: Canada's Triumph and Tragedy on the Fields of Flanders : an Illustrated History (Coteau Books: 2009).

Mosby, Ian. "Food on the Home Front during the Second World War," War Time Canada (2019).

Pritchard, James. A Bridge of Ships: Canadian Shipbuilding during the Second World War (2011).

Shefrin, Frank and J. Coke. "People on he land," anadian Affirs (Edmond Cloutier: Ottawa,1944), 19p.

Created: 2:17 AM 4/30/2019
Last updated: 12:24 AM 6/8/2019