Figure 1.--Soon after Pearl Harbor Americans began arriving in Britain. They were the vanguard of a torrent of men and material that would be hurled at the Germans. The Americans and British had some major differences, but were united that priority was to be given to defeating the Germans first. While the build up began, the Americans and British got to know each other. The press caption here read, "U.S. Soldier and Foster on for the Day Enjoy Selves at Xmas Party: Somewhere in England. Little Harry Himmas, 7, whose home was bombed in one of the big Coventry raids, shows his delight as he eats his first real ice cream for a long time. Private George Alton of Pittsburg, Pa., who has adopted Harry for the duration of the party shares the pleasure by also eating a plate of ice cream. Party as given by enlisted men of the USAAF Service Command for 100 English evacuees at a station 'Somewhere in England'. The photograph was taken December 28, 1943. Besides being a fun image, it shows the prodigious nature of the U.S. supply chain. American units required far greater quantities of supplies to function than comparabe German units or even British units.

The Japanese carrier attack on Pearl Harbor finally brought America into the War (December 1941). President Roosevelt announced to Congress that he was authorizing the largest armaments production in the history of the United States (January 1942). Americans and their equipment began arriving in Britain within in weeks after Pearl Harbor (February 1942). The Americans were greeted with both relief and curiosity when they finally landed on British shores. Both America and Britain agreed that priority had to be given to Europe and defeating the Germans first. The British accepted an American plan for a buildup of U.S. forces in the United Kingdom in preparation for a future trans-Channel invasion (April 1942). The plan was Operation Bolero and included construction of airfields from which to launch the bombing offensive, a small contingent of ground troops, and a force of 750,000 to participate in a cross-Channel invasion in early 1943. Detailed planning was underway (early May). Demands from other theaters caused a downward revision of the Bolero buildup (May 1942). General Marshall organized for an immediate buildup of American forces in Britain for an invasion of France. It soon became obvious that an invasion was not possible in 1942, but he pushed hard for an invasion in 1943. Fortunately the British managed to delay the invasion until the Americans were more experienced and huge forces had been assembled. Many of the early arrivals were then committed to Operation Torch (November 1942). After this the D-Day buildup began. The British and Canadians were heavily deployed in Kent and Surrey where a German invasion had been planned. The Americans thus were billeted to the west and north. This would determine the deployment of forces when the Allies finally invaded and the conduct of the Western campaign, much to President Roosevelt's displeasure as he was more interested in northern Germany. The American servicemen were stationed from Scotland to Cornwall. The inexperienced U.S. Army was anxious to invade France and attack the Germans. The American military forces rapidly expanded as the country mobilized for war. The American military presence in Britain grew from a handful of men in early-1942 to over a million troops (February 1944). And another 0.5 million would pass through Britain. All this while, the Red Army continued to wear the Germans down in the East. For over two years the Allies built up a massive force in England. Months before the invasion, the millions of Allied soldiers (America, British, Canadians, Free French, and others) engaged in intensive training, often highly realistic exercises. Supply depots for the massive undertaking studded the British isles, especially the southern counties of England.

America Enters the War

When Hitler launched World War II by invading Poland (September 1939), most Americans were admently opposed to entering another war in Europe. Americans had come to believe it was a mistake to have entered World War I. President Roosevelt was hopeful that the British and French with material American support could defeat the Germans. The German defeat and occupation of France and the ensuing Blitz on Britain began a major reassessment in America. Gradually public opinion shifted and despite a vigorous national debate led by the Isolationists, American's came to support President Roosevelt's policy of national rearmament and support for Britain. At the time of Pearl Harbor, however, a majority of Americans still opposed entering the war. The public supported all support for Britain short of war. In the end, the national debate was settled by the Japanese militarists and Adolf Hitler. The decesion for war by Japan and Germany was radically different. The Japanese after more than a year of intense study had convinced thenselves that Americans were soft and would not fight. Few Japanese commanders had any knowledgeable about America and Admiral Yamamoto's misgivings were very rare within the military establishment. Crowds in Tokyo cheered the Pearl Harbor success. The reaction in Berlin was very different. Hitler was shocked by the failure of Barbarossa before Moscow. And President Roosevelt had been ahorn in his side sibce the War began. With the Wehrmacht falling back in Russia, in was the only aggressive step open to him. It would be the last major NAZI initiative. The War would be decided in 1942 and he would spend the rest of the War reacting to Allied moves. The German people received the bews very differently than the Japanese public. The Gernans had fought the Americans in World War I and were aware that American entry in the War had been the turning point. Only the most ardent NAZIs were enthusiastic with the news. And Hitler's announcement that he had declared war on America reached the German people at the same time as the news of the Red Army offensive before Moscow. Unlike the Japanese military, many German military commanders realized that Hitler's high stakes gamble had failed. Presidennt Roosevelt was shocked at the devestation suffered by the Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor. Inteligence reports had made in clear that the Japanese were preparing to strike, but Ameeican military commanders had not anticipated the blow would come at Pearl or that Japan had the military capacity to deliver such as powerful strike. Perhaps the most sanguine assessment was made in Britain by Primeminister Churchill.

American Mobilization: The Arsenal of Democracy

President Roosevelt announced to Congress a few weeks aftr Pearl Harbor that he was authorizing the largest armaments production in the history of the United States (January 1942). The result not only staggered the Axis, but surprised many Americans as well World War II was an industrial war. The NAZI's used Germany's industrial prowess to build modern weapons and the Wehrmacht was the first military to develop effective tactics for the new weapons. Germany had, however, had an industrial plant a fraction of that of the United States. This was one reason that Hitler launched the invasion of the Soviet Union when he did. He realized that he would have to defeat the SovietvUniion when before America with its industrial strength entered the War. Goebells quiped that the Americans only knew how to make razor blades. Hitler and many senior Whermacht officers knew that America posed a mortal threat to the Reich. There was no discussion of racial supermen in America. From the beginning President Roosevelt stressed industrial production. And here America had an unparalled capacity to produce. The key to winning the War was production. The record of American war production is staggering and in large measure determined the victorty of the the Allies in the West and auded the Soviets in the East. American produced weapons and equipment in quantities that suprised not only the British, but many Amnericans as well. American production rose to levels neither the NAZIs and Japanese did not believe possible--both the rapidity of conversion to war production or the absolute quantities.

Americans Arrive in Britain

Americans and their equipment began arriving in Britain within in weeks after Pearl Harbor (February 1942). The fist American troops arrived in Ulster. Gradually they began appearing in the south and southwesr of Enhgland and a few in scotland.

Interpersonal Relations

Americans were greeted with both relief and curiosity when they finally landed on British shores. The Anglo-American alliance had a huge impact on the war. It was perhaps the most important alliance in human history. But something else very important occurred at the micro level. It brought Americans and Brits together together in large numbers for the first time since the Revolution. America had of course joined the Allies in World war I, by\ut the AEF went to France where the War on the Western Front was fought. Reklarively few American servicemen were stationed in Britain. This was not the case in Wirld War II. After Pear Harbor, large numbers of American servicemen were rushed to Britain. The powerful 8th Air Force was established in Bruitain aznd soon operatring from fields all over the country. The Army also built up in Britain. The first Army units were ciommitted to Operation Torch in North Africa (November 1942). But throughout 1943 and early 1944 men and material arrived in enormous quantities. It was here that the famous expression developed, "Over paid, over sexed, and over here." Probably the origin was the world War I song, "Over There" by Irving Berlin (1917). There were tensions, often among the higher ups. Here one of General Eisenhower's great achievements was how he managed the military alliance, with little help from commanders like Mobntgomery and Patton. For the most part the GI's and the British people hit it off. British children had seen Hollywood films and thought of both gangsters and cowbioys and Indians. Most met their first real American during the War. Most were enchanted by the optimistic, gum chewing GIs, and Yankee slang. The children sought out the GIs and the inevitable exchange of gum and Hershey bars. The GIs wiould show up at schools and children's centers to cheer up children, especially the children separated from their parents. The girls were also impressed and because most young men were in the services, the friendshio forms would lead to many GI msrriages. Many British families invited the GIs into their homes. Some were billited with families. The GIs for their part weren't impressed with the food and weather, but liked the British people. A lot of Americans had anti-British attitudes before the War. After tghe War, the only major group with anti-British attitudes were Irish-Americans.

Europe First

Both America and Britain agreed that priority had to be given to Europe and defeating the Germans first. There was genralm agreement among both the milititary and political leadership on this. This was agreed on in meetings between the British and Americans even before America entered the War. Hitler and the NAZIs were clearky the gratest danger. They had the most advanced military technology including the capability of building nuclear weapons. Germany's highly professiinal military leadershio backed by not only German industry, but the economies of most of Europe was clearly the greatest danger. This was formally recognized in the talks held in conjuctiin with the Atlantic Charter (August 1941). Public opinion after Pearl Harbor (December 7) was, however, a problem. Americans wanted retribution aimed at the Japanese. Fortunately Hitler steped in to make matters relatively easy for the President by declaring war on America (December 11). And within a few nonths the Doolittle Raid (April 1942) seemed to satisfy public opinion. As a result, the Europe First decesion, never articulated to the public, never became a serious issue. A major factor here was that the United Stats never had to face the great bulk of the Japanese Army which throughout the War was primarily deployed in China. Instead the U.S. Marine Corps and Army fought a series of island engagements involving relatively small forces. This was in part there were only so many men that the Japanese could cram on a small island, especially because they then had to supply them. And the United States after Midway (June 1942) and the Solomons naval battles (August-December 1942) was gaining conrol of the sea lanes and steadily destroying the Japanese merchant marine. As a result, America with its huge industrial capacity and large population was able to pursue a Europe First strategy with the British and still devote adequate men and material to fight the paciduc War.

War Planning

The British accepted an American plan for a buildup of U.S. forces in the United Kingdom in preparation for a future trans-Channel invasion (April 1942). The plan was Operation Bolero and included construction of airfields from which to launch the bombing offensive, a small contingent of ground troops, and a force of 750,000 to participate in a cross-Channel invasion in early 1943. Detailed planning was underway (early May). Demands from other theaters caused a downward revision of the Bolero buildup (May 1942). General Marshall organized for an immediate buildup of American forces in Britain for an invasion of France. It soon became obvious that an invasion was not possible in 1942, but he pushed hard for an invasion in 1943. Fortunately the British managed to delay the invasion until the Americans were more experienced and huge forces had been assembled.

Operation Torch (November 1942)

Many of the early American Army arrivals were then committed to Operation Torch (November 1942). Thankfully the British managed to convince the Ameicans to delay the cross-Channel invaion. Torch would be the Allies first offensive strike in the European theater. The goal was to seize Vichy-held North Africa. Landings were carried out in Morocco and Algeria beyond the range of Axis air cover. The Allies would than race overland and seize Tunisia, trapping the Afrika Korps between Montgomry's Eighth Army in the east and the Torch landing force in the west. Naval tasks forces of men and equipment sailed from both Britain and America. Despite fears, they were untouched by U-boats and only noted when fleet units began a arriving around Gibraltar. Torch occurred shortly before Soviet Opration Uranus encircling the Sixth Army in Stalingrad. Hitler and OKW were distracted. Important Luftwaffe units were used to ferry forces to Tunisia at the same time they wre badly needed in Staligrad. After Torch, the Americans began the D-Day buildup began in earnest.

Deployment

The British and Canadians were heavily deployed in Kent and Surrey where a German invasion had been planned. The Americans thus were billeted to the west and north. This would determine the D-Day deployment of forces when the Allies finally invaded and the conduct of the Western campaign. No one realized this at the time. A a result when the first ideas for occupying Germany were drawn by Treasury Secretary Moorgenthau (Rankin-C), America was seen as occupying central and southern Germany. President Roosevelt was disturbed when this first came to his attention aboard the USS Iowa on the way to the Tehran Conference with Stalin. [Ryan, p. 144.] He was displrased because he was more interested in northern Germany with its ports and Berlin, not central and southern Germany. The American Army troops which would land in France were stationed from Scotland to Cornwall, primarily in western and southwestern England. He stunned the Army planners by insisting that the Americans land on the left in Normandy so they could advance north toward northern Germany. This would have required D-Day landing forces to cross, carrying the Britsh in southwatern England to the western Normandy beaches and the Americans in southwestern England to the eastern beaches. It was an obviously imposible undertaking.

Battle of the Atlantic

The American buildup in Britain was premissed on victory in the Battle of the Atlantic. Hitler's declaration of war was followed by Operation Drumbeat and a German U-boat offensive along the Ataltic coast of the United States. The German submariners were finally able to take the battle to the Americans after being restricted for several months by Hitler. Then the battle shifted to the mid-Ocean Gap as the the U.S. Navy, the British Royal Navy, and Canadian Riyal Navy did battle with the U-boats. After dusaters in the East and North Africa, for a time, Hitle who had take little interst in the Kreigsmarine pinned his hopes on Admiral Dönitz's U-boats. He calculated correctly that the Americans could not transport th quantity and men and materials to Britain needed for a cross-Channel invasion nor could Britain even continue the War if the U-boats prevailed. A factor here was the huge demands on shipping needed to both support the British and supply American troops. American units required much greater quantities of supplies than German units or even British units. Beyonf the quipment needed by a fully mechanized army and large air firce, American troops expected many of the niceties of civilain life. The ice cream puctured here is just one detail of the massive supply chain that needed to be safeguarded over the Atlantic (figure 1). German soldiers pilaged occupied countries to send food and consumer good home. The Allied convoys carried not only military supplis to Britain, but cakes, cookies and mich else that loved ones sent to their men in the services. And after a long, bitter campaign, the Allies finally prevailed and Dönitz was forced to withdraw his wolf packs from the Atlantic.

Expansion

The inexperienced U.S. Army was anxious to invade France and attack the Germans. The American military forces rapidly expanded as the country mobilized for war. The American military presence in Britain grew from a handful of men in early-1942 to over a million troops (February 1944). And another 0.5 million would pass through Britain. All this while, the Red Army continued to wear the Germans down in the East. For over two years the Allies built up a massive force in England.

Training

Months before the invasion, the millions of Allied soldiers (America, British, Canadians, Free French, Poles, and others) engaged in intensive training, often highly realistic exercises. Many of the American divisioins in particular had no combat experience. The Allied D-Day training effoty was a vital and vast endeavor. Some of it was conducted in North America, but most of it was conducted in England, a good deal of it especially the most realistic exercvises along the southern coast. There were bases opened all over the country. The British and Canadian bases were mostly in eastern England because the Germans had been expected to land along the southeastern coast. The American bases were in western England because this was where space was available. Firing ranges were at a premium, as such large areas were needed for practice-firing weapons, especially heacvy weapons. The emphasis ftom the beginning was on amphibious operations because beach landing was the critical point of the whole operation. Here the bortive Deppe Opperation (1942) had made a critical difference. The German conclussion was that the Allies were coming for the pports. Thus they heavilt defended the ports. The Alklies concluded atht the ports were too hard a target and thus chose lightly defended beach sites and brought their ports with them--Mulberries. Even more important because the Amerivan Mulberry was destroyed were the landing craft, Higgins Boats and Landing Ship Tanks (LSTs). In one training exercise, German E-boats shot up several LSTs with serious losses. While the gratest concentration of bases was in southern England, there wee training facilklities all over the country, including Scotland. A particularly important base was the British Combined Operations Training Center at Inverary noth of Glasgow. It had been established at the onset of the War (1940). The initial purpose to train for commando operations, but expanded when British priorities changed from raisd to a massive invasion. Then bases in southern England were opened such as Culbin Sands and Burghead Bay to prepare in the actual areas where the Allied invasion fleet would assemble. The U.S. Army set up at least eight training centers preparing for D-Day. Woolacombe Beach, Devonshire was an important Assault Training Center. Actual amphibious training was conducted here, in part because of the topographical similarity to Normandy. Slapton Sands in South Devon was used for amphibious rehearsals. It bwas here the costly Operation Tiger was conducted (April 1944). [Tillman] The United States had learned a great deal about amphibious operations (1942-43), but the men landing mostly hd no experience. The training exercises gave the commanders and men actual experiece and the opportunity to identify issues and problems as well as time to correct them before the actual landings. The first training exercise that was conducted in Devon experiebced a range of problems, especially troop communications. A general sense of chaos was reported along with a lack of understanding of the overall mission. A massive full-scale American rehearsal was coducted along the Devon coast using 23,000 troops. There were also training exercises in Florida at Camp Gordon Johnston. An essential element of the training was to ensure that the Army, Navy and Air Forces coorinating operations. An official Combined Service Centre was established to help the three military units work together more efficiently and effectively. Here naval coordinatiin was especially worked out. American tactical air operations were still being worked out and were not in place until shortly after the landings.

Landing Craft

Equipment

Supply depots for the massive undertaking studded the British isles, especially the southern counties of England.

Sources

Ryan, Cornelius. The Last Battle (Simon and chuster: Nw York, 1966), 571p.

Tillman, Barrett. D-Day Encyclopedia (2014).

Created: 6:05 AM 12/5/2013
Spell checked: 5:13 PM 12/5/2013
Last updated: 3:08 AM 7/15/2019