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Ethnic tensions existed in Eastern Europe between Poles and Ukranians. Poles and Ukranians were both subject peoles of the Tsarist empires and there were many areas in which the two ethnic groups were mixed.
The Poles after World War suceeded in eastablishing a new Polish nation which included areas with substantial Ukranian populations. The Ukranians failed and were ansorbed by the Soviet Union. Ukranian nationalists were still acive, especially in the western Ukraine, and hopeful of establishing an indepedent state as a result of World War II. NAZI policy after the invasion of Poland (1939) was to supress Polish nationalism of any kind. Policy toward the Ukranians was more varried and various NAZI officials persued inconsistent policies. The NAZis encouraged the Ukranians before the invasion of the Soviet Union, but then suppressed the natiinalists after Barbarossa and the seizure of the Ukraine (1941). NAZI policy was conflicted because their anti-Slav racial policy and their anti-Bolshevick idelogy conflicted. Ukranians were Slavs, but the nationalists were anti-Bolshecick. NAZI policy changed again as the war in the East began to go aginst them. To reduce resistance to their occupation, the NAZIs encouraged or at least tolerated inter-ethnic violence. Two areas of Poland were the location of this inter-ethnic violence: Volhynia and Galicia. Generally it was the Poles who suffered because the NAZIs armed some Ukranian nationalists to supress resistance activity. The result was extensive attrocities against civilians. This was mostly attacks on Polish villages, because the Ukranian groups were better armed and tolerated by the Germans. The NAZIs permitted or tolerated this because they viewed the Poles as hostile and supporting the partisans. Accounts of the violence give varied estimates of the results. It seems clear that tens of thousands of people were killed, mostly Polish villagers. Different mostly Ukranian groups were involved in the killing. German Wehrmacht military units also wre involved in attacks on Polish villigers as part of their anti-partisan campign. Czechs were also attacked. Few Jews were attacked because they had previously been eliminated by the NASIs. The killings were primarily conducted during summer and autumn of 1943, but actions continued in to 1944 before the Red Army reached the area.
Poland-Lithuania during the late medieval period at one time included much of Eastern Europe, including a very large part of the Ukraine. Poland played an important role in stopping Ottoman advances in Europe. Gradually Polish power weakened as the three European empires expanded (Austria, Prussia, and Russia). Volhynia and Galicia were two areas of Poland with mixed Ukranian and Polish populations. Both became part of the 18th century Polish partitions. They became small provinces of the multi-ethnic empires which dominated Europe before World War I. Volhynia was part of the Russian Empire. Galicia was part of the Austrian Empire. After World War Galicia and part od Volhynnia made up much of eastern Poland beyond the Curzon Line.
Volhynia is an eastern European region in the western Ukraine which is located between the rivers Prypiat and Western Bug. It is situated north of Galicia and of Podolia. Volhynia is notable as one of oldest Slavic settlements in Europe. The population was overwealingly Ukranian. Many Jewish shtetls (villages) were also present in Volhynia. There was a smaller Polish population. Volhynia was apart of the huge Polish-Lithuanian state in the late-medieval era. Tsarist Russia obtained the province of Volhynia during the 18th century Partition of Poland (the Third Partition). Many ethnic Germans moved into the region from Congress Poland during the 19th century. One source reports 0.2 million ethnic Germans and a small number of Czechs during the late 19th century. The settlers promoted economic development, but the province was still largely rural. The province was fought over by the Bolshevicks, Poles, and Ukranians after World War I--Polosh-Soviet War (1919-21). The Poles and Soviets divided the province in the Peace of Riga (1921). The Soviets got the largest slice of eastern Volhynia. The Poles got the western part. Stalin initiated an ethnic cleansing action in the Soviet portion of Volhynia (1935-38), deporting the Poles. After the signing of the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939) and the ensuming NAZI-Soviet invasion of Poland (September 1939), Poland was partitioned roughly along the old Curzon Line. Thus western Volhynia was included in the Soviet occupation zone. The German population was repatriated to the Polish areas annexed to the Reich. Both eastern and western Volhynia came under NAZI control when Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa (June 1941).
Galicia is an eastern European region situated between modern Ukraine and Poland. The center of historic Galicia is three regions of western Ukraine (Lviv, Ternopil and Ivano-Frankivsk). Political boundaries in eastern Europe have changed significantly over time. Thus the precise geographic area described as Galicia has varied very substantially. Galicia was apart of the huge Polish-Lithuanian state in the late-medieval era. Austria obtained the province of Galicia during the 18th century Partition of Poland (the First Partition). The population was mixed Polish and Ukranian. ThecAustrians referred to the Ukranians as Ruthenians. There was also a large Jewish population in eastern Galicia. After the Napoleonic War, Galicia was split. The Lubin area was made part of Congress Poland which was controlled by the Tsarist Russian Empire. The Austrias continued to control the south. The Austrians after the defeat by Prussia (1866) created the Austro Hungarian Empire (1867) and began a process of liberalization. A degree of autonomy was granted to Galicia, but during this period ethnic tensions grew in Galicia between the Poles and Ukranians who were vying for greater control. Large numbers of Galician peasant migrated in the late 19th century. Some sought seasons jobs in Germany. Many other migrated permanently to America, Canada, and Brazil. Galicia was the scene of heavy fighting between Russia and Austria during World War I. The situation was confused following the War. Poland won control of the province as a result of the Polish-Ukranian and Polish-Soviet Wars. Many Ukranians resented Polish rule. After the signing of the NAZI-Soviet Non-Agression Pact (August 1939) and the ensuming NAZI-Soviet invasion of Poland (September 1939), Poland was partitioned roughly along the old Curzon Line. Thus Galiicia was included in the Soviet occupation zone. The Jews were spared the terrible repression the NAZIs conducted in western Poland. The Soviets deported Jews who did not adopt Soviet citizenship to Siberia. The Soviets pursued anti-Polish policies, but we do not have details at this time. Galicia came under NAZI contol when Hitler launched Operation Barbarossa (June 1941).
The Poles after World War I suceeded in eastablishing a new Polish nation. The Polish government led by Józef Piłsudski led a united Polish nation intent on independence. The Poles supported an independent Poland. Poland waged a struggle for independence with the Bolshevick Red Army after World War I. The Poles prevailed in the Polish-Soviet War (1919-21) and emerged as an independent country. Pilsudski had initially supported the Ukranians. The Ukranians were, however, not narly as unified as the POles. There were Ukranian nationalists, Whites, Bolshevicks, and other groups. The French who landed troops at Odessa after the War to support the Whites in the Russian Civil War, withdrew after a few months because they could not tell who was who. The Poles who were exhaused after the War in the Peace of Riga (1921) abandoned their support of Ukranian independence. The Ukranians divided among themselves failed in their quest for independence and were absorbed by the Soviet Union. The Poles and Soviets divided Volyn and the Poles obtained control of most of Galicia. This was a province with a largely Ukranian population that would have been part of an independent Ukraine had the Ukranians achieved their independence. The Ukranians after the Jews were the most important minority in Poland.
Ukranian nationalists were still acive, especially in the western Ukraine, and hopeful of establishing an indepedent state as a result of World War II.
NAZI and Soviet policy after the invasion of Poland (1939) was to supress Polish nationalism of any kind. NAZI policy toward the Ukranians was more varried and various NAZI officials persued inconsistent policies. The NAZis encouraged the Ukranians before the invasion of the Soviet Union, but then suppressed the natiinalists after Barbarossa and the seizure of the Ukraine (1941). NAZI policy was conflicted because their anti-Slav racial policy and their anti-Bolshevick idelogy conflicted. Ukranians were Slavs, but the nationalists were anti-Bolshecick. NAZI policy changed again as the war in the East began to go aginst them. To reduce resistance to their occupation, the NAZIs encouraged or at least tolerated inter-ethnic violence.
The NAZIs had encouraged Ukranians to believe that they might accept an independent Ukranian state. Ukranian nationalists were incouraged by the NAZI anti-Bolshevick policies, espite the Non-Agression Pact. NAZI policy was bnot alltogether consistent on this matter. With the invasion of the Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) the NAZIs seized control of both former Eastern poland and the Ukraine (June 22, 1941). The NAZIs pursued different policies in eastern Poland with its mixed Polish-Ukranian population than they did in the Ukraine proper. This was because the NAZIs considered these provinced more Aryanized/civilized and also they saw that the Ukranians could be useful in their campaign to destroy Poland and Polish nationalism.
Ukranian nationalist, Yaroslav Stetsko, declared the establishment of a Ukranian Government in Lvov only a few days after the invasion (June 30). Stetsko acted without clearing the declaration with NAZI authotities. The NAZI suppressed the Ukranian state. They incorporated Galicia into the General Government--Distrikt Galizien. Einsatzgruppen following the advanzing Panzers set about murdering Jews. The Germans were, however, more lenient with the Galician Ukranians than Ukranians further east in the Ukraine popular.
Generally it was the Poles who suffered because the NAZIs armed some Ukranian nationalists to supress resistance activity. The result was extensive attrocities against civilians. This was mostly attacks on Polish villages, because the Ukranian groups were better armed and tolerated by the Germans. The NAZIs permitted or tolerated this because they viewed the Poles as hostile and supporting the partisans. Accounts of the violence give varied estimates of the results. It seems clear that tens of thousands of people were killed, mostly Polish villagers. Different mostly Ukranian groups were involved in the killing. German Wehrmacht military units also wre involved in attacks on Polish villigers as part of their anti-partisan campign. Czechs were also attacked. Few Jews were attacked because they had previously been eliminated by the NASIs. The killings were primarily conducted during summer and autumn of 1943, but actions continued in to 1944 before the Red Army reached the area.
German anti-Partisan activities varied over time. The orders issued by OKW were very harsh--The Commissar Order and Barbarossa Decree. The propensity for violence on the part of German officers varied. One author describes a prevalent "guerrillaphobia". [Shepherd] Many officers were consvinced that oartisans could divert the Wehrmacht from the Schwerpunk and could only be defeated by the most ruthless application of force. This was a prevalebt belief within the Reichwehr even before Hitler seized power. And after seizing power, he moved to polticize the Wehrmacht. NAZI supporters were promoted and officers of the Imperial Army that believed in chilverous conduct were shunted aside. Added to this, the anti-Semetic and anti-Slavic NAZI idelogy set up a condition in which ahti-partisan operations would be waged with unprecedented barbarity. Some authors suggests that the anti-partisan operations were conducted at least in part as pat of the NAZI goal of reducing Jewish and Slavic populations. Another factor that has to be considered is the limited resources that the Germans palced in anti-partisan activities and the huge area involved. This set up very different circustances than in the West. Three groups were involved in the anti-partisan operations: the Wehrmacht, the SS, and the Reich Labor Front. The Wehrmacht placed its anti-partisan operations in the hands of Security Divisions not prepared for front line operations. In additions, units resting behind the frontlines might be attached temporarily to SS units for anti-partisan operations. The SS Einsatzgruppen after anialiting Jewish communities were deployed for anti-partisan units. SS combat units were also deployed for anti-partisan units. These units included formations recruited from anti-Soviet local people, and Muslims. Another major participant in the anti-partisan operations was Fritz Sauckel's Reich Plenipotentiary for the Mobilization of Labor. The three groups often independently without any coordination. One author believes that the Wehrmact Security Divisions and SS units often cooperated, but there was little cooperation with the Sauckel's Labor Organization. German anti-parisan operations can be divided into three periods in which anti-partisan operatins varied. First was Barbarossa (June-December 1941). Here Soviet partisans were weak and poorly organized. The Germans expecting a quick victory acted brutally without any consideration of the long-term impact of their actions. Second was the 1942 campaign. After the Soviet offensive before Moscow (December 1941), it became clear that the Eastern campaign would not be a short one. Some Wehrmacht commanders began to defy orders and attempted a degree of moderation to pacify thir areas. [Shepherd] Third, during the retreat west following Stalingrad, retreating units often acted brutally, both killing large numbers of people, but destroying any thing that might be useful. At the same time, expanding Soviet partisan actions brought vicious reprisals. German anti-partisan operations were especially severe in 1944. SS orgganized operations would sweep areas designated as "band infested". They would descend on towns and villages, in some cases killing the entire population and burning the community to the ground. Depending on the commander, the children and in some cases the women would be spared. The survivors were transported west to the Reich where they were interned in concentration camps, including camps like Auschwitz. Many of the children the Allies found when they liberated the camps were the survivors from these anti-partisan sweeps. These sweeps while barbaric apparently did effectively reduce partisan activity.
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