Figure 1.-- |
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Pan-Arab nationalism grew in Iraq during the 1930s. A major factor was the British role in Iraq as well as British and French control of severa Arab states. Another factor here was the abti-Zionist agitation in nearby British-controlled Palestine. The influence of Arab nationists was growing, both in government circles and the Army. A series of coups after 1936 in particular strengthened the influenece of extreme nationalists in the army. Arab agitation in Palestie against both the British and Zionists affected Iraq creating resentment toward both the British and Iraqi Jews. Relations between Arabs and Jews were basically amicable. The reports of Zionist expansion in Palestine began to become an issue in Iraq after the Paestinian disorders and British attempos to restore order. Iraq's Jewish comminity played an important role in the economy. The Government moved to marginalize the Jewish community. Arab nationalists charged that Iraqi Jews were Zionists. The trends were exacerbated as Palestinians who attacked the British and Zionists sought refuge in Iraq, acting to radicalize the Iraqis. The Grand Mufti of Jeursalem, Amin al-Husaini, who played a major role in promoting the attacks on the British and Jews was one of those refugeees (late 1939). The Grand Mufti became influebntial in both government and military cirrcles. He played a major role in making anti-Semitism an important element in Iraqi pan-Arab nationalism. Another development in the 1930s was the risw of NAZI Germany. This provided a potential European country withe power to help evict the British and French from Iraq and the rest of the Middle East. The Granbd Mufti's role in making anti-Semitism an important aspect of Aran nationalism made the NAZIs an even more attractive potential ally. Iraqi Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Kailani was a Iraqi nationalist who resented Britain's role in Iraq. I'm unsure as to his attitudes toward the Jews. Four officers known as the ”Golden Square” ;largely controlled the Army. Even before arriving in Iraq, the Grand Mufti had attempted to obtain NAZI assistance. The Fall of France (June 1940) was a turning point for the Iraqi nationalists. They were convinced that The NAZIs would win the War and they could drive a weakened Britain out of the Middle East. The result was a military revolt seeking to break ties with Britain and join the Axis. This was potentially critical and the British Dessert Army and Naval forces in Egypt relied on Iraqi oil. Defeat of the Deset Army would have exposed the Jews of the Middle East to the NAZI Holocaust.
The history of the Hebrew from the very beginning were asociated with Iraq. The great Jewish patriarch Abraham was from what is now Iraq. Subsequent Hebrew history revolve around geogaphy, Palestine's location between the early great civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt. Then other empires (Persia, Greece, and Rome) would play a major role. Cyrus the Great who conquered the Babylonians freed the Jews. Many retuned to Palestine, but some remained in Persian controlled Iraq. Under Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman, and Byzantine rule, the Jews in Iraq prospered. Important Jewish scholars worked in Iraq, producing the Babylonian Talmud (500-700 AD). Iraq was an early conquest of Arabian warriors and most of the poplation gradually converted to Islam. The Arab treatment of the Jews varied between periods of toleration and suprression. Ottoman rule was a reltively begign period. There was by the 20th century a substantial Jewish community in Iraq, largely concentrated in Bagdad. One estimate suggests that at the time of World War I about a third of Bagdad was Jewish. Ottomon rule in Iraq was ended by World War I. Iraq's Jewish community totaled some 90,000 people at the time of World War II and were the most prosperous, prominent and well-integrated Jewish community in the entire Middle East. They played an important role in the commercial and professional life of Bagdad. [Wistrich]
Modern Iraq at the onset of World War I had been a part of the Ottoman Empire for four centuries. The Ottomans after a serious of military defeats at the hands of the Rsarist forces along the northern Black Sea and Balkans, saw Wotld War as a opportunity to use German military power to regain lost territory from the Russians. The Ottoman Empire had recently suffered reverses in Libya and the Balkans. The Ottomans entered the War on the side of the Central Powers (November 1914). The sultan declared jihad (holy war) against the Allies. The Ottoman Arrmy was a largely unknown factor at the onset of the War. Its 0.6 million men grouped into 38 divisions with access to German arms and military advisrs were a potentially significant threat to the Allies, especially Britain. The British thus responded by seizing Basara in southern Iraq with an Anglo-India force. The British concern was the the Anglo-Persian oil pipeline, vital to the Royal Navy. The Ottoman response was an offensive from Palestine toward the Suez Canal in Egypt (February 1915). The Ottomans hoped that the attack would cause an Islamic revolt in Egypt. This did not occur and the Ottomans were repulsed with heavy losses. The British from their Basara base fought a little known campaign for Iraq along the banks of the Tigris. The Anglo-Indian Army achieved imortant victores throughout 1915. The Ottomons, however regroued (early 1916) and achieved a major victory at Kut-al-Amara (April 1916). Sir Frederick Stanley Maude was appointed regional Commander-in-Chief. A renewed British offensive finally achieved vicory (October 1918).
The League of Nations granted Britain a mandate over Iraq. Jews prospered under British rule.
The British found Jews to be helpful in their administration of Iraq. Jews held important positions in the Ottoman colonial administration. They were also prominant in commerce. As they were established in Iraq, they thoroughly understood Iraqi culture and not only spoke Arabic and local dialects, but often English as well. At the gtime, few Iraqui Arabs spoke REnglish. The British helped install the new Iraqi monarchy, choosing Emir Feisal led the Arab revolt against the Ottoman sultān during World War I. Here T.E. Lawrence played a major role. Jew played an important role in the early phase of the monarchy. Under the British and the early phase of the Monarchy, there were no lmits on Jewish religious life or participation in the government and commerce.
Britain granted Iraq independence, ending the League Mandate (1932). There were defense arrangements. Jews at first played an important role in independent Iraq. Iraq's Jewish comminity played an important role in the economy. This began to change in the 1930s as a result of Pan-Arab Nationalism and the rise of the NAZIs in Europe..
Arab nationalists throughout the Middle-East grew in importance during the inte-War era. Sati al-Husri, exerted a major influence on Iraqi education after following King Feiel to Baghdad (1921). Despite his Ottoman background, as Iraqi Minister of Education and other educational posts, he played a major role in shaping the vision of the Iraqi elite, both political and military. His message was a strong, united Iraq that was destined to lead the Arab world. Michel Aflaq, emerged as the the most important theoretician of the Iraqi and Syrian nationalists laying the foundtion for the Bth Party after World war II. He studied in Paris (1928-32) and was impressed with Hitler and the NAZIs in neighboring Germany. Dr. Sami Shawkat, another, Iraqi educational official was a commited Fascist and a fanatical ideologue following the rise of the NAZIs in Germany. He was particularly impressed with the Hitler Youth and its ability to instilling a martial spirit in boys. He believed that the samne could work in Iraq. He also developed vitriolic anti-Semitic views and spoke even more openly about his goals. He openly advocated the complete annihilation of Iraqi Jews. [Shawkat] He not only hated Jews, but convinced himself that eliminating Jews was necessary for an Iraqi national revival and achieving the 'historical mission' of uniting the badly splintered Arab nation. Pan-Arab nationalism grew in Iraq during the 1930s. A major factor was the British role in Iraq as well as British and French control of several Arab states. Another factor here was the abti-Zionist agitation in nearby British-controlled Palestine. The influence of Arab nationists was growing, both in government circles and the Army. A series of coups after 1936 in particular strengthened the influenece of extreme nationalists in the army. Arab agitation in Palestie against both the British and Zionists affected Iraq creating resentment toward both the British and Iraqi Jews.
Relations between Arabs and Jews were largely amicable in Iraq until the 1930s although there had been occassional acts of violence. The reltive success og Bagdad Jews bothered some Muslims who were not as succesful or had to compete with Jewish businessmen. Iraqi nationalists were influenced by the NAZIs and their anti-semetic doctrines. Anti-semitism was further fueled by the Grand Mufti and his struggle with the British and Zionist settlers in Palestine. The reports of Zionist expansion in Palestine began to become an issue in Iraq after the Paestinian disorders and British attempos to restore order. Arab nationalists charged that Iraqi Jews were Zionists. The trends were exacerbated as Palestinians who attacked the British and Zionists sought refuge in Iraq, acting to radicalize the Iraqis. The Grand Mufti of Jeursalem, Amin al-Husaini, who played a major role in promoting the attacks on the British and Jews was one of those refugeees (late 1939). The Grand Mufti became influebntial in both government and military cirrcles. He played a major role in making anti-Semitism an important element in Iraqi pan-Arab nationalism. Another development in the 1930s was the risw of NAZI Germany. This provided a potential European country withe power to help evict the British and French from Iraq and the rest of the Middle East. The Granbd Mufti's role in making anti-Semitism an important aspect of Aran nationalism made the NAZIs an even more attractive potential ally.
The Jerusalem Grand Mufti Haj Amin el-Husseini helped inspire riots and disorders throughout Palestine (April 1936). Six prominent Arab leaders formed the Arab High Command to to protest Zionist activities, especially land purchases and immigration. The Arab High Command organized a general strike of Arab workers and a boycott of Jewish products (April 1936). Soon the initial peaceful actions escalated into attacks on Jews as well as the British authorities. Riots occured in Jerusalem and other cities. The Mufti took over leadership of what came to be called the Arab Revolt. These disorders, seen as the first stage of the "Arab Revolt" continued until November, 1936. Another stage of disorders began in September, 1937. The cause was the Peel Commission which suggested the partition of Palestine. The second stahe was much more violent. There were more intense figting with British forces as well as attacks on more Jewish settlements. The violence was not only aimed at the British and Jews. The Mufti used the violence to settle scores with rival Palestinian factioins. Under the cobver of his Higher Arab Committee he ordered the killing of hundreds of Psalestinian leaders in 11 different clans. The Mufti apparently obtained covert support from both The Italian Fascists and German NAZIs. Full details on this are not available. Count Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law and Italian Foreign Minister, wrote that the Italian Secret Service had funded the Mufti for many years. [Ciano] The NAZI Siecherheitsdienst (SS Secret Service) claimed that without their support, the Palestinians could not have continued the Revolt. The British were hard pressed at the time and actually authorized the arming of the Haganah. The British and the Haganah worked togrther. Effecive operations were organized by Charles Orde Wingate who later became famous in Burma. Wingate established Special Night Squads of Jewish volunteers. The British sucessfully defeated the Arab Revolt. Husseini was able to find refuge in Iraq. The British government cocerned about the British position in the Arab world sought to apease Arab opinion with the 1939 White Paper.
With the rise of anti-Zionist and pro-NAZI sentiment in officicial circles, the Government moved to marginalize the country's Jewish community. The Government placed restrictions on Jews. The first action was religious. The Government prohibited the teaching of the Hebrew language (1933). It also placed restrictions on the use of the Holy Scriptures in prayers. The Government leveled additional permits and licensing fees on Jews. Officials were increasing bold about demanding bribe form Jewish businessmen exporting or importing goods. Otherwise their merchandise would sit in a customs wearhouse indefinitely. Officials fired Jews with positions in the civil service. The Government prohibited Jews from leaving the counytry (1938). This was an action primarily designed emigration to neighboring Palestine. Until the 1930s there had not been significant emigration to Palestine. Iraqi Government actions Jews had promted Iraqi Jews to emigrate.
The primary Iraqi youth group was the British inspired Boy Scouts. Onlyv a small number of affluent boys in Bagdad abnd the lrger cities participated. Participation was not assisted by the British image. We are not sure to ehat extent Jewish boys participated. There are reports that well to do Iraqis sent their boys to Germany to participate in Hitler Youth camps and other events. We are not sure how wide spread this was. School boys (but not girls) beginning in Junior high school boys were encouraged to join the Futtuwa. This was a ultra-nationalistic para-military youth programs organized along the lines of the NAZI Hitler Youth proigram. Their was an antti-Semetic component.
NAXI influence expanded in the mid-1930s and this was felt in Iraqi schools. Public high schools terminated French language instruction, at the time the language of diplomacy. It wa commonly replaced with German classes. The Government expelled Jewish children from public high schools (1938).
The Iraqi Jewish community resonded in various ways to risung anti-Semitism and Government actions against Jews.
Jews begane cautious about their movements, even in Baghdad where there was asizeable Jewish community. Most Jews limited
their movements to plsaces they knew to be secure (work, school, and the marketplace).
There were no restrictiojns in the print or broadcast media on anti-British and ant-Semetic propaganda. There werte publish articles and broadcasts that can only be dessribed as unadultrated hate speech aimed at Jews. It was not disimilar to the NAZI media. In fact, Nazi anti-Semetic propaganda was actively distributed in Iraq. Local anti-Semrtic radio broadcasts becane very cimmon. Hajj Amin al Hussayni, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, after the failurecof the anti-British rising in Plestine, fled o Bagdad. He was welcomed by raqi Prime Minister, Nuri Al Sa’id. This allowed Hussayni and his colleague, Fawzi Kawakchi [Kaukji, Kawkji] to use Islam to stoir up public feeling against the monarchy, the Regent Abd Al-Ilah, the British, and especially the Jews. The Mufti was a prominant figure on Iraqi radio broadcasts.
Iraqi Prime Minister Rashid Ali al-Kailani was a Iraqi nationalist who resented Britain's role in Iraq. I'm unsure as to his attitudes toward the Jews. Four officers known as the ”Golden Square” ;largely controlled the Army. Even before arriving in Iraq, the Grand Mufti had attempted to obtain NAZI assistance. The Fall of France (June 1940) was a turning point for the Iraqi nationalists. They were convinced that The NAZIs would win the War and they could drive a weakened Britain out of the Middle East. The result was a military revolt seeking to break ties with Britain and join the Axis. This was potentially critical and the British Dessert Army and Naval forces in Egypt relied on Iraqi oil. Defeat of the Deset Army would have exposed the Jews of the Middle East to the NAZI Holocaust.
British intervention quelled the pro-NAZI coup. It did not prevent a Government-inspired effort to destroy Iraqi Jews.Iraqi officials and British military authorities signed an armistice (May 30, 1941). The coup leaders fled the country. Yunis Al-Sab’awi, the Minister of Economics, with the flight of the coup leaders took it upon himself to declare that he was the Military Governor of Baghdad. He also called the President of the Jewish community and told him that all Jews were being restricted to their homes for 3 days (May 31 to June 2). He then ordered the Katayib Al-Shabab, a paramilitary youth group, to use red paint to mark all Jewish homes and stores in Bagdad. He then sent a message to be broadcast the main Bagdad radio. In it he urged the Arab public to massacre the country's Jews. It was the beginning of an old-fashion pogram and the most violent Arab uprising against Jews during World War II. The British managed to prevent the broadcast and expelled Al-Sab’awi. Even so, Katayib Al-Shabab had their orders. They and others launched Al-Sab’awi’s plan--Farhood / Farhūd (June 1). This was Iraq’s own Kristallnacht. Al-Shabab had chosen the Feast of Shavuot (Pentecost). This was a harvest festival celebrated on the 15th day after the end of Passover. What should have been a time of rejoycing and a holy day turned into a terrible nightmare for Iraqi Jews.
The actual violence was led by Iraqi soldiers, frustrated by their defeat at the hands of the British. But they still had their arms and Jews wee a convient target on whom they ciuld take out theor frustration. Some police and Katayib Al-Shabab joined in as did a swelling mob of civilians.
Shawkat, Sami. These Are Our Aims (1939).
Wistrich, Robert S. "Iraq’s Kristallnacht: Seventy Years Later," (2011).
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