Figure 1.--Crown Prince Peter was at school in England when his father King Alexander was assasinated in Marseilles (October 9, 1934). He immediately returned hom. Here he is with his mother.

King Alexander was assassinated in Marseilles (October 9, 1934). Alexander was arriving in Marseille for a state visit to the Third French Republic. The two coubtries were allies as part of the Little Entente. While being driven through the streers, a gunman stepped forward and shot both Alexandwr and French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou as well as the chauffeur. Ot was all caught on film and was featured in movie newsreels around the world. The assasin was struck down at the scene by a mounted French policeman and then attacked by the croed. The French police apparently panicked and fired wildly, killing and wounding bystanders. As aesult significant discrepancies emerged in the balistic assessment. There were variations in reports on the number and direction of shots fired. The press immidiately began writing about Balkan terrorism and blood oaths. It was not lost upon the French that Wotld war I had been ignited by Balkan terrorism. The assasin was a Macedonian terrorist working with Croatian extremists. There are reports of Hungarian and Italian support, but very little has ever been provem. Italy's Dictator Benito Mussolini had designs on the Balkans and Yugoslavia, the region's largest state stood in his way. It was thus in Italy's interests to destabilize Yugoslavia. The investigation proved complicated. The assassin carried a Czech passport identifying him as Petrus Kalemen. There were clains thst he was a Czech, Hungarian, and Croat. A tatoo on his arm caused considerable interest. It included a skull and crossbones and some capital letters. A Yugoslav journalist claimed it was the symbol of the MRO. Fingerprint evidence eventually identified the Assasin as Vlado Chernozemski, Mihailov associate. Other individuals were arrested, all Croats. They implicated Ante Pavelic, the head of a Croatian Ustashe--an outlawed Croation terrorist group. Hungarian complicity was suggested because the conspirators had trained there before the Hungarian Government closed down the refuge camps there. Italy and Germany did not cooperate in the investigation. And with the rise of appeasement sentiment, there was not great desire by the French to push either country. King Alexander was buried in the Memorial Church of St. George. It had been built by his father. The Kings' 11-year old son, Crown Prince Peter, succeeded his father. Pribce Peter at the time was at school in Britain. His father was planning to visit him after meetings in Paris. As a result of his youth, Alexander's first cousin Prince Pavle Karadjordjevic oversaw a regency.

World War I: Serbia

It was Serbian terrorism that actually precipitated World War I although many other forces were at wirk that led to the War. Austria-Hungary's annexation of Bosnia (1908) has intendified ethnic tensions in the Balkans. Serbian nationalists assassinatied Archduke Francis Ferdinand (June 28, 1914). There is no evidence that the Serbian government was directtly responsible, although Government officials did support terroist groups. Austro-Hungarian officials were concerned with the rising demands of Slavic national groups and decided that reducing Serbia which had made substantial gains in the Balkan Wars (1912-13) would help to control the Slavs and Pan-Slavism. Austria issued a an ultimatum with a list of demands (July 23). Serbia wished to avoid the War. The Serbs were exhausted by the two Balkan Wars. War with the much larger Austria-Hungary Army was a ausome threat. The Serbian Government thus accepted all of the Austrian demands, except the demand for Austrian officials to participate in Serbian courts. The Serbs held out as a result of Russian pledges to support Serbia in case of Austrian attack. The Germans supported the Austrians rejected efforts by the British (Sir Edward Grey) to negotiate. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia (July 28). Russian mobilization resulted in a German ultimatum (July 31). When the Russians continued to mobilize, the Germans declared war on Russia (August 1) and on France (August 3). Thus launching World War I. The Serbian war plan was to rapidly double the size of the army from 5 to 10 divisions. Unlike Austria-Hungary, the small Serbian Army was battle tested, having participated in a series of Balkan wars. Although the War began in the Balkans, the campaign there is the least reported campaign of World war I. Austria began the campaign by launching three offensives against Serbia (1914). The Central Powers convinved the Bulgarians to enter the War by offering territory that the Serbs had gained in the Balkan wars (September 6, 1915). The Austro-German forces attacked across the Danube (October 6). The Bulgars in the south, into eastern Serbia (October 11) and into Macedonia (October 14). The western Allies attempted to assist Serbia. Greece was neutral, but Prime Minister Eleuthérios Venizélos favored the Allies and made the port of Salonika available. The Allies diverted troops from the Gallipoli campaign. Commanded by French General Maurice Sarrail the Allied troops arrived at Salonika (October 5). Nevertheless the Allies pressed forward north up the Vardar into Serbian Macedonia. Bulgar forces, however, prevented them from linking up with the Serbs. The Allied forced fell back to Salonika (mid-December 1915. The Serbian Army facing destruction executed a terrible winter retreat west over the Albanian mountains. They were accompanied by the King and many civilians. They sought refuge on the island of Corfu. Allied naval power made it impossible for the Astrian-German forces attack them. This meant, however, that Serbia was finally occupied by the Central Powers. The Allies planned a new offensive. The Allies forces at Salonika were reinforced by the Serb Army transported from Corfu and more British and French troops as well as some Russians. What followed was a sea-saw battle with the Bulgars in Macedonia. The Allies were eventually reinforced by the Greek Army when Greece enter the War (June 1917). Greek and Serbian troops eventually proved decisive in breaking the Bulgar lines. This then opened up the liberation of Serbia.

World War I Peace Treaties

World War I was ended by the Versailles, Saint-Germain, Trianon, and Neuilly peace treaties. These treaties included substantial territorial concessions by the Central Powers. Italy gained some territory, but much less thn they had anticipated. Some of the land in question had gone to Yugoslavia. Thus Hungary, Bulgaria, and Italy after the war were not happy with the borders drawn. The same thing of course ocurred in Germany which saw territory transfered to France, Belgium, Denmark, Poland, and Czechoslovakia. Hungary also had major territorial differences with Romania.

King Alexander I

Alexander was crowned King in 1921 after the death of his father King Alexander I. His father had earned fame as a soldier in the Balkan Wars and the World War I. Even before his father's death, he served as regent. As a result he was an experienced ruler and diplomat at the time he became king. He aggressively addressed many of the challenges faced by his new country.

Yugoslavia

Yugoslavia was a new country with many serious problems. The new kingdom faced many threats, both foreign and domestic. Yugoslavia was built around Serbia which with the largest population dominated the new government. Some of the other natuonalities added to the kingdome were not at all happy with minority status, especially the Croats. Ethnically the various components of Yugoslavia were Slavs, but there were substantial cultural differences, including religious differences. The Serbs were Orthodox Christians. The Croats were Catholic. Kosovars abd many Bosnians were Muslim. Macedononians, Montenegrans, and Slovenes added to the mix. Neighboring states who had fought with the Central Powers (especially Hungary and Bulgaria were hostile because of terrirort lost in the World War I peace settlement).

Foreign Policy

King Alexander persued an active foreign policy. He signed a treaty of friendship with France (1927). He attempted to ease tensions with neigboring states. Progress was made with Hingary which closed refugee camps in Southern Hungary where Croat exiles had sought refuge and some believe were training for terrorist acts in Yugoslavia. Alexander and King Boris of Bulgaria exchanged royal visits (November and December 1933). The Macedonian issue was a particularly difficult one. Alexander convinced King Boris to close down the Macedonian Revolutionary Organization (MRO). The organization sought independence for Macedonia which was incorporated in the Greek and Tugislav state. The nominally political MRO was begoing essentially an organized crime gang and was involved in both terrorism and violent internal feuds. Ivan Mihailov operaring from Sofia and Western Bulgaria controlled nuch of the MRO and was responsible for a range of violent and criminal acts. Vlado Chernozemski, a Mihailov loyalist, killed two prominent leftist Macedonians. After King Boris suppresed the MRO, sought refuge in Turkey which saw some advantages in tolerating the MRO. Chernozemski sought refuge in France. Alexander's efforts enbitered both the Croats and Macedonians.

Domestic Rivalries

Internally rivalries between the Serbs and Croats increased tensions still further. Some Yugoslavs believe that it was clear by 1929 that the King had no option but to impose a Royal dictatorship. Serbian domination of the government had caused resentment by Croats, Slovenes, and other natiionalities. A crisis resulted from the killing of a Croat national leader. Civil war seemed imminent. The King claimed he assumed power reluctantly and he promised to restore democracy to the newly renamed Kingdom of Yugoslavia once unity had been achieved and bureaucratic corruption expunged. His government vigorosly repressed opposition.

Little Entente

The Little Ententewas formed in 1920-21 by Czechoslovakia, Romania, and Serbia/Yugoslavia. Serbia and Romania fought with the Allies in World war I. Czechoslvakia had been part of Austria-Hungaria, but there was widepread support for the Allies. At the time the countries were concerned with restraining Hungarian efforts to regain territory lost in the world War I peace settlment and to ensure that there was no Hungarian restoration ineither Hungary or Austria. The three countries signed three separate bilateral treaties of defensive and economic alliance. The group then received French support through both financial and treaty ties. Poland sometimes cooperated with ithe group, but did not establish formal ties. Yugoslavia and Romania also participated in the Balkan Entente (1934). The principal concern of the Little Entente and the Balkan Entente was to preserve the World War I peace settlement against the countries wanting the terms revised. These countries included Germany, Hungary, Italy, and Bulgaria. The Little Entente also opposed the Anschluss between Germany and Austria. The group also sought to promot closer economic ties. The group was basically successful until Hitler's seizure of power in Germany. Hitler used diplomacy and Germany's economic power to dismantle the group. Britain and France did not resist the NAZI iniatives until it was too late. The group began to lose its unity and was finally ended after the Munich Conference when the Allies failed to back the Czechs (1938).

Assasination (October 9, 1934)

King Alexander was assassinated in Marseilles (October 9, 1934). Alexander was arriving in Marseille for a state visit to the Third French Republic. The two coubtries were allies as part of the Little Entente. While being driven through the streers, a gunman stepped forward and shot both Alexandwr and French Foreign Minister Louis Barthou as well as the chauffeur. Ot was all caught on film and was featured in movie newsreels around the world. The assasin was struck down at the scene by a mounted French policeman and then attacked by the croed. The French police apparently panicked and fired wildly, killing and wounding bystanders. As aesult significant discrepancies emerged in the balistic assessment. There were variations in reports on the number and direction of shots fired.

Investigation

The press immidiately began writing about Balkan terrorism and blood oaths. It was not lost upon the French that Wotld war I had been ignited by Balkan terrorism. The assasin was a Macedonian terrorist working with Croatian extremists. There are reports of Hungarian and Italian support, but very little has ever been provem. Italy's Dictator Benito Mussolini had designs on the Balkans and Yugoslavia, the region's largest state stood in his way. It was thus in Italy's interests to destabilize Yugoslavia. The investigation proved complicated. The assassin carried a Czech passport identifying him as Petrus Kalemen. There were clains thst he was a Czech, Hungarian, and Croat. A tatoo on his arm caused considerable interest. It included a skull and crossbones and some capital letters. A Yugoslav journalist claimed it was the symbol of the MRO. Fingerprint evidence eventually identified the Assasin as Vlado Chernozemski, Mihailov associate. Other individuals were arrested, all Croats. They implicated Ante Pavelic, the head of a Croatian Ustashe--an outlawed Croation terrorist group. Hungarian complicity was suggested because the conspirators had trained there before the Hungarian Government closed down the refuge camps there. Italy and Germany did not cooperate in the investigation. And with the rise of appeasement sentiment, there was not great desire by the French to push either country.

Burial

King Alexander was buried in the Memorial Church of St. George. It had been built by his father.

Crown Prince Peter

The Kings' 11-year old son, Crown Prince Peter, succeeded his father. Pribce Peter at the time was at school in Britain. His father was planning to visit him after meetings in Paris. As a result of his youth, Alexander's first cousin Prince Pavle Karadjordjevic oversaw a regency. Price Paul did ot, however, have the experiemnce or judgement of his brother and had to deal with the rise of German power after Hitler and the MAZIs seized power (1933). Austria stood between Germany and Yugoslavia, but this changed with the Anschluss when Hitler annexed Austria to the Reich (1938).

Sources

Eckhardt, Tibor. Regicide at Marseilles (New York: Americna Hungarian Library and Historical Society, 1964).

Seton-Watson, R.W.+ "King Alexander's Assassination: Its background and effects", International Affairs 1935: 14/1: pp. 20-47.

Created: 3:13 AM 11/21/2006
Last updated: 3:13 AM 11/21/2006