Libyan Schools: Italian Colonial Schools (1911-42)
Figure 1.--This photo was taken in the 1930s at El Agheila, on the Libyan coast--the apex of the Gulf of Sidra. This is far western Cyrenaica. It was taken in an Italian colonial school. Three photos hang on the classroom wall: King Victor Emanuel III, Mussolini and another one, presumably the colonial governor, but we cannot identify him. On the right side you can see an Italian map on the wall. This is an all boy class. They are pnly wearing long white shorts--a kind of uniform. El Aghelia was also the site of an Italian concentration camp duriung the final phase of the pacification of Libya (1928-32). The Germans fought a brief rearguard action at El Agheila as part of their retreat from El Alamein (December 1942).
Libya had no modern schools until Italy seized Libya fron the Ottonmans and began to colonize the country (1911). Libya first fought a war with the Ottoman Empire (1911-12). A longer war with the Libyans followed which was not resolved until after World War I, Mussolini launched a very brutal passification campaign (1920s). Large numbers of Italian settlers migrated to Libya with government support as settlers. The first modern schools in Libya were built for these settlers. We are not sure to what extent Libya children also atended. Eventually over 100,000 Italians settlers migrated to Libya, mostly in the larger cities along the coast. Libya was referred to as the 'Fourth Shore'. Italian plans called for eventually settling 500,000 Italians in Libya. Schools were established for the Italian settlers. We do not --know to what extent the Italians opened schools for Libyan children. In the initial phase there seems to have been little interestbin schools for the Lbyan pop=ulation. [Labanca, pp. 253-94.] This began to change after Mussolini and the Fascists seized power (1923). We know there were some such schools esablished in the cities. How many and what portion of the Liyan population had aceess to these schools or desired to attend them we do not know. They would have been taught in Italian rather than Arabic by Italian teachers. We suspect that many Libyan parents were not anxious to send their children, especially girls to these schools. The Italians controlled Libya for sone 30 years. We have no idea just to what extent they expanded the system or trained Libyan teachers. An Italian HBC contriubutor writes, "At least in the main places the children are involved in schools and also in the Fascist youth organizations. There were specific groups. Bringing 'civilization' was the main excuse of European colonialism. I found two photos more from this El Agheila School: a group of boys having gym activities and a group of girls. While the girls wore the traditional clothing, the boys wore only short pants." We only have informatiin from this one school at the time and we have no idea how relpresentative it was. But one aspect is crystal clear, the Libyans were kept separate from the Italaian settlers. we can assume that similar schools for the Libyans existed in the other coasatal cities as well as the two largest cities, Benghazi and Tripoli. And we are not sure who these chikdren were. We suspect that many of the families were assocciated with the Italaian administration. What was going on in the rest of the colony we are not sure. A British onbserver who visited both Italian occupied Ethiopia and Libya reports just before the War repored that Italian following that of the Ottomans was the limiting 'the growth of an Arab educated class, elsewhere the centre of Arab political development. There are only about 120 Arabs at the one higher secondary school in Tripoli." [Steer, p. 165.] This suggests that at the secondary level there was mixing of Italian and Libyan students.
Italy despitev its Rioman roots, got a late start in colonialism. Italy as part of the scramble for Africa obtained colonies in East Africa. The Kingdom of Italy itself was declared in 1861, after Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia had annexed Kingdom of Lombardy and Venice (this Kingdom was not independent, but controlled by the Austro-Hungarian Empire) and Kingdom of Naples (including all South Italy and Sicily). Rome became Italian only in 1870. Italy was a poor country. Many Italians emigrated to North and South America. The colonial effort was a attempt to share in the partition of Africa. This was both a matter of national pride as well the result of the widly held opinion that colonies were needed for a healthy economy. An Italian company (Rubattino) bought the rights to Assab Bay from the local Sultan (1869). The Italian Government bought these rights from the company and declared Assab an Italian colony (1882). This was Italy's first territorial acquisition in Africa. Assab became the primary port in what was to become the colony of Eritrea. The Italians also seized Somaliland and established a small protectorate (1889). Some resistance was encoutered as the Italians expanded their new colony (1889-92). The Italians assisted Ethiopian Emperor Menelik expand his territory in East Africa. The Italians claimed that in exchange Menelik had agreed to a protecorate and invaded Rthiopia. The Ethiopians decisively defeated theItalians at the battle of Aduwa/Adowa (1895). This was a rare African victory over European colonizers. Italy was forced to recognize the independence of Ethiopia. After the war with Memelik, Italy declared the colony of Eritrea in the coastal area they still controlled. I do not have details about Italian colonial policies at this time. Italy next seized Libya after a brief war with the Ottomans (1912). Ethiopia remained independent until the Italians under Mussolini invaded (1935), causing a major international incident. The young Emperor Haile Salassie appealed to the League of Nations, but half-hearted anctions were quickly abandoned. The Fascists organized youth groups in their African colonies. Mussolini dreamed of seizing Egypt and Suez after declaring war pn Britain and France (1940). Subatantial Italian forces were stationed in both Libya and Italian East Africa. The massive Itlaian invasion from Libya was defeated by a small British force (1940) and only German intervention prevented the fall of Libya (1941). Another small British Commonwealth force attacking from Sudan and Kenya seized Italian East Africa (1941).
Seizing Libya
Italy began to colonize the country (1911). Libya first fought a war with the Ottoman Empire (1911-12). A longer war with the Libyans followed which was not resolved until after World War I, Mussolini launched a very brutal passification campaign (1920s).
Settlers
Large numbers of Italian settlers migrated to Libya with government support as settlers. At the time, italy with its largely agricultural economy could not support yhe country's large populatioin. This is why so many Ittalians emigrated to America and other countries. Thus it was a factor in the Italian government's colonial effort. Libya was referred to as the 'Fourth Shore'. Italian plans called for eventually settling 500,000 Italians in Libya. Eventually over 100,000 Italians settlers migrated to Libya, mostly in the costal area. This mostly occurred sfter Mussolini lunched a brutal psciufucation cmpaign to end Libyasn resistance to Itlian rule (1923).
Educational Eras
No public education system existed in Libya when the country was seized by Italy. The Ottoman had begun buildinga public education system in Turkey as opart of the Tasimat Reforms and this had begun in its colonies as well, but Libya wa largely autonomous. As far as we know, this had not yet occurred in Libya to any extent. Thus Libya had no modern public schools until Italy seized Libya fron the Ottonmans (1911). There were madrassas or Islamic/Koranic schools attached to Mosques. Attendance was limited as was literacy. Women in particular were largely iliterate. Italian authoriries were primarily interested in educatiin for Italian children as Itlalian settlers began to arrive. All of this was hampered by Libyan resistance to the Italians. This changed when Mussolini and the Fascists seized power. The Fascist lunched a brutal campaign to end Libyan resistance. Once accomplisdhed the took an interest in educating the Libyans with the primary goal of making Libyans loyal second-class citizens.
Ottoman era
No public education system existed in Libya when the country was seized by Italy. The Ottoman had begun buildinga public education system in Turkey as part of the Tasimat Reforms and this had begun in Anatolia and its colonies as well. Public education was still relatively new to the Ottomans--essentially a Europen import. And as far as we can tell, not adopted in Libya yet when the Italians invaded. Libya was largely autonomous under the Ottomans. There were, however, apparently some European schools in the major cities. [Micacchi, pp. 1-2.] We have no details at this time. Libya had no modern public schools for Libyans until Italy seized Libya fron the Ottonmans (1911). There were madrassas or Islamic/Koranic schools attached to Mosques. Attendance was limited as was literacy. The curiculum was largely limited to litercy and religion. There may have been some math instruction, although this varied. Girls were mostyly excluded and thus femle litercy was very low.
Italian Parlimentary era (1911-22)
There was no existing public school system in Libya when Italian forces seized control of the country (1911). And education was not a major concern. There was Italian settler population to be concerned with and no real interest in educating Libyans. Italian forces were able to control the coastal cities. Establoishing ciontrol in the hinterland was more problemnatic amd her resistance to Italian rule developed. Soon Italy became involved in World War I (1915). As a result the security situation in Libya festerd as the War along Italy's northern border became a priority. The misque-based madrassas continued to be the main educational institution for Libyans, but as Itallian settlers began to arrive, schools had to be provided for the children. The first modern public schools in Libya were built for the settlers.
There were two competing ideas in Italy about Libya. The nationalist idea was that Libyans should be Italianised in Italian schools with instruction conducted in Italian. The other opotion was to preserve local culture and customs and the use of Arabic. Here the more natiinalist option won out, but not entirely. The Ministry for the Colonies addressed the question of Libyan education (1913). The education of Libyan children was to be limited primary sschooling. This was designed to prepare Libyans for menial/manual jobs and to avoid providing them with ‘intellectual arms’ that would be a consequence of higher education. Italian and Libyam children were segregted in the schools. Italian settler children were to be taught in standard Italian schools like the ones in Italy proper.
The Libyan children were to be assimilated. The traditional mosque schools were to be allowed to cintunue, but under Italain supervision. Italian-Arabic schools wee to be established, offering a 3 year primary program which consisted of the Italian language and a heavy emphasis on Italian history. Koran and Arabic classes would be supervised by Italian teachers. A Scuola di Cultura Islamica (higher Islamic school) was to be established to train the personnel needed by Muslim religious, legal, and educational institutions. This was, howver, noit estanlished until much later--1935. After World War I ended (1918), more attention could be given to Italy's new Libyan colony. American President Woodrow moralistic preaching of democracy and sel-determination appdars to have had some affect. One ibserver writes, yjat Wilson's " democratic values encouraged Italy to take a more conciliatory approach, allowing for the preservation of indigenous culture, language, religion and rights to Italian citizenship. This led to the involvement of local elites in colonial administration.Secondary schools (scuole medie) were established for the local population, and the Koranic [mosque} schools acquired the status of government schools; the educational system was completed by technical and agricultural schools, and schools for girls. In this phase, the system was conceived of as providing equal rights to education for Italians and Libyans, who had been given full citizenship following the 1919 statutes of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania. However, Italian efforts regarding education were tightly constrained by the emilitary difficulties arising from Libyan rebellion after the occupation ...." [Pretelli, pp. 278-79.] Libyan resistance to Italian control that both education and settlement faltered. The Italin Givernment actually recongnized Libyan control over large areas of the colony.
Italian Fascist era (1922-42)
This changed when Mussolini and the Fascists seized power. Benito Mussolini and the Fascists seized control of Italy (1922). The new Fascist Government took a greater interest in colonial eduction, especially in Libya. The othger colonies (Eritrea and Somalia) were considered too primitive for a major educatiin effort and were not conducive for Italian immigration. Education policy shifted to a much more stridently nationlistic approach. But first the new Fascist regime had to regain control over the colony. Mussolini launched the Second Italo-Senussi War (1923-32). It was a brutal pacifiucation cmpaign in which modern arms including tnks, artillery, mchine guns, and aircrdt were used against the poorly armed Libyans. A substantial part of the population, perhaps 25 percent. The Italians committed terrible atrocities, including the use of chemical weapons. By the end of the campaign, the Italins were in firm control of the colony. Admist all of this, Italian authorities began opening schools for both Italin settlers as well as educating Libyans. Italian authoriries were primarily interested in education for Italian children as Itlalian settlers began to arrive. All of this was hampered by Libyan resistance to the Italian rule. There was also a concern iover educating Libyans with the primary goal of making them docile, loyal second-class citizens. Angelo Piccioli, director of schools in Tripoli (wesrern Libya) saw education for Libyans as a 'political' problem to be solved and solved by the standard Fascist sollution -- the total subjugation of the colonised by the colonisers. {Piccioli, p. 1094.] The new Fascist educational authorities abandoned the moderare approached adopted by the orevious liberal regime. The new approach was domimation. New decrees were issued (1924-28). They establishing the school system that would be erected in Libya until Allied forces seized cointril during Workd War II. Seperate schools were established for Italians and Libyans. The Italian goal for the Libyan schools was a 'peaceful and moral conquest'. [Festa, p. 25.] The goal was to create respect abd devotion toward Italy. There wa no attempt at cooprtation, but the clear subiordination of the Libyan popultion. Italian settler children would go to basic Italian schools like the ones found in Italy. Libyan children would attend separate primary schools, at first referred to as Arabic schools. Secondary schools scuole medie) were only for Italian settler children. Further education beyond the primary schools was seen as leading to nationalist, anti-Italian agitation. Authiorities ordered that in the schools fir the Kibyan children that all subjects (exceopt Arabic, the Koran nd religion) be taught in Italian. The mosque schools were carefully monitored, being seen as a breeding ground of anti-Italian fanaticism. [De Leone] What we do no have yet is any actual data on schools and students. We do not - -know to what extent the Italians opened schools for Libyan children. In the initial phase there seems to have been little interest in schools as there wee no Itlaian settlers. Nor was there any interest in building schools for the Libyan population. [Labanca, pp. 253-94.] This began to change after Mussolini and the Fascists seized power (1922). We know there were some such schools esablished in the cities. How many and what portion of the Liyan population had aceess to these schools or desired to attend them we do not know. They would have been taught in Italian rather than Arabic by Italian teachers. We suspect that many Libyan parents were not anxious to send their children, especially girls to these schools. The Italians controlled Libya for sone 30 years. We have no idea just to what extent they expanded the system or trained Libyan teachers. An Italian HBC contriubutor writes, "At least in the main places the children are involved in schools and also in the Fascist youth organizations. There were specific groups. Bringing 'civilization' was the main excuse of European colonialism." The El Agheila school gives us one look at Libyan schools. What was going on in the rest of the colony we are not sure. A British onbserver who visited both Italian occupied Ethiopia and Libya reports just before the War repored that Italian following that of the Ottomans was the limiting 'the growth of an Arab educated class, elsewhere the centre of Arab political development. There are only about 120 Arabs at the one higher secondary school in Tripoli." [Steer, p. 165.] This suggests that at the secondary level there was mixing of Italian and Libyan students.
One common theme in Muslim countries is that during the colonial period Muslim parents were hesitant to send cvhildren to the schools run by Europeans. This was especially true of the girls. Parents kept a tighter contol of girkls to begin with, but were especailly uneasy about entrusting their girls to European-run schools. Given Italian brutality in Libya , we assume that this would have been especiually pronounced, but have no actual data to confirm this. We do notice one school where was girl students. How commin this was, we just do not know. They all look very young. They look like just the first age group. So if they are students, then there must be more girls of an older age. We know the girls were photographed at school. But we don't know for sure that they are students or how voluntary thei presenve was.
Individual Schools
Our Italian contributor tells us, " I found two photos more from this El Agheila School: a group of boys having gym activities and a group of girls. While the girls wore the traditional clothing, the boys wore only short pants." The boys wear the same white short pants for gym/exercises as they do for class, only with the additiion of a white camp. Notice that the boys are all perfectly outfitted. This is telling. It certainly means that the school has providded the outfits. But boys being boys we know that such nuniformity is raeewly achieved in real life even with schools that have strict unifiom regulkatioins. We suspect that the boys were dressed this way at the school just for the photographs. We have no idea if boys at at other schools were dressed like this. We doubt it.Rather this looks motr like propaganda images designed to give the idea that Muslim children were receiving a proper education.
We only have information from this one school at the time and we have no idea how relpresentative it was. But one aspect is crystal clear, the Libyans were kept separate from the Italaian settlers. We can assume that similar schools for the Libyans existed in the other coasatal cities as well as the two largest cities, Benghazi and Tripoli. And we are not sure who these children were. We suspect that many of the families were assocciated with the Italian administration.
Foreign Policy
Given the brutality of the Italian pacification campaign in Libya (1923-32) bordering on genocide, it is quite anazing that the World War II Axis acquired a considerable following in the Arab world. As areas of the colony were pacified, Italian settlers moved in. In many areas they moved into the housing of Libyans killed or driven out by the Italian Army, often using auxileries recruited in Eritrea and Somalia. After finally pacifying Libya, Mussolini begana campaign to ein over Arab sentiment. Here the goal was to undermine Britiosh and Frenmch positions in countries bordering oin Libya, especially Tunisia and Egypt. Libya had a long establishrd claim on Tunisia. While Libyans were denied access to secondary eduaction there was a school in Tripoli that a few Libyans attended. A second schoolmin Trpoli was opened ton the,, perhaps as Mussolini had decided to pursue a pro-Islamic foreign policy initative. [Cresti, p. 147.]
Culture
The Fascist regime prided itself that it was not desroying Libyan cultural traditiions. The fascist attitude was that the separatiin measures sucg bas asehregated schools allowed Libyan children to grow upo in their own communities and culyural environment and to remain Muslims. Only they were to be influenced by the superior Italian civilization. And the Libyans were to be trained to farm colonized land. [Festa, p. 32.] The fact that many lost their homes and land to the Italaian settlers has to be considered as a cultural issueas wellams a matter of basic justie. Peoole whomlose thaeir lands and homes can not practice their culture in the same way that had been the case. And the Fascist cincern with the misque schools strongky suggests a concern with Islam despite Italian foreign policy initiatives.
Sources
Cresti F. "Per uno studio delle 'elites' politiche nella Libia indipendente: la formazionescolastica, 1912-1942," Studi Storici Vol. 41, No. 1 (2001), pp. 121-58.
De Leone, E. "La nostra politica scolastica in Libia," Educazione Fascista Vol. 6, No. 5 (1933), pp 402-17.
Festa, A. La scuola italiana e l'opera di conquista morale della Libia (Tripoli: Maggi, 1932).
Labanca, N. 1993. In marcia verso (Adua. Turin: Einaudi, 1993).
Micacchi, R. 1931. "L'insegnamento agli indigeni nelle colonie italiane di diretto dominio." Atti del Primo Congresso di Studi Coloniali (Florence: Istituto superiore 'Cesare Alfieri'; 1931), 32p.
Piccioli, A. La nuova Italia d'oltremare: L'opera del fascismo nelle colonie italiane (Milan: A. Mondadori, 1933).
Pretelli, Matteo. "Education in the Italian colonies during the interwar period," Modern Italy Vol. 16, No. 3, (August 2011), pp. 275-93.
Steer, G.L. A Date in the Desert (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1939).
