Figure 1.--Here we see a cabinet card portrait of who we believe is a school boy and his sister in Estonia with their rather snoozy pooch. What we do not know is their ethnicity. The card does not have any provinnce, but comes from can Estonian dealer. The boy is wearing a Russian-styled school uniform which suggests to us that he was in a secondary program. He wars a Russian cadet cap, tunic and belt with a milarty/school buckle. We think he is holding sone kind of graduation socument from his primary school. His sister seems to be a little older and looks like a boy, but the dress and hat show that she is a girl. We suspect that she attended primary school nd no longer attends school.

Estonia was seized by Tsarist Russia in the Great Northern War (early-18th century). It was a long brutal war followed by a terrible plague. One historian reports that these tragedies "brought the nation to the brink of extinction". At the time, there was no protection for civilans from maurauding armies. With Tsarist control eventually came a slow recivery. The Tsarists focused on vocational education with the pupose of servinge military and industrial interests. Now with a Russian widow on Europe, a Tsarist edict ordered the building of Russian-language admiralty schools for a new Russian Navy (1719). Here in edition to general education, shipbuilding and artillery were taught. A school of navigation was established in Narva. Even with Russian control, the language of instruction at the university level and most of the doctoral theses were in German until 1919. Catherine II came to the throne (1762). She launched what became known as the ‘Enlightened Absolutism’. It combined Tearist absolutism inan uneasy combination with the German and French Engligtenment. One major advance in Estonian education was an expansion of primary education in the countrysude as a result of different all-Russian laws and regulations. A network of published schools was established. And girls began attending schools for the first time (late-18th century). Educating girls was especually important. Literate mothers could teach children at home. A developing economy encouraged peasants to learn to read to increase job opportunities.

Great Northern War (1700-21)

The Great Northern War was the first war of the 18th century. It extended over two decades and was fought in different phases as battlefields and beligerants shifted. The phases of the War cnsisted of 1700-06, 1707-09, 1709-14, 1714-18, and 1718-21. The origins of the War began in the 1690s. At the time Sweden was the dominant power in northeastern Europe. A coaltion (Russia, Denmark, and Saxony-Poland) gradually formed to resist Sweden (1697-99). When Charles XII assumed the throne at only age 15, it seemed an opportunity to deal with Sweden which controlled a broad area of northeastern Europe. Charles V of Denmark had designs on Scania and other territories on the northern coast of the Baltic that was once Danish territory. Denmark also wanted to seize the Duchy of Holstein-Gottorp which Sweden now controlled. Agustus II of Saxony-Poland wanted Livonia on the Baltic. Augustus was known as Augustus the Strong. He was the Elector Frederick Augustus of Saxony within the Holy Roman Empire. He was elected king of Poland (1697). Possession of Livonia (Latvia) would enable Augustus to significantly, Peter, reduced Swedish commercial influence in the Baltic. Augustus saw the potential of combining Saxony's productive know how with Polish raw materials, but Swedish commercial power impaired Augustus' plans. Russia's dynamic young Tsar, Peter, had more limited goals. He primarily wanted an outlet on the Baltic. And Sweden possession of Karelia/Ingria (southern Finland) and Estonia blocked Peter's westward advancement. The War began in Livonia where by J R von Patkul and other anti-Swedish noblemen ? Estonia was seized by Tsarist Russia in the Great Northern War (early-18th century). It was a long brutal war followed by a terrible plague. One historian reports that these tragedies "brought the nation to the brink of extinction". At the time, there was no protection for civilans from maurauding armies.

Vocational Education: The Navy

With Tsarist control eventually came a slow recovery from the devestation of the Great Northern War. Tsarists officials focused on vocational education with the pupose of supporting military and industrial interests. Now with a Russian window on Europe that Tsar Peter sought, a Tsarist edict ordered the building of Russian-language admiralty schools for a new Russian Navy (1719). Here in edition to general education, shipbuilding and artillery were taught. A school of navigation was established in Narva.

University Education

Even with Russian control, the language of instruction at the university level and most of the doctoral theses were in German until 1919.

Catherine the Great: Enligtened Abosolutism

Catherine II came to the throne (1762). She launched what became known as the ‘Enlightened Absolutism’. It combined Tearist absolutism in an uneasy combination with the German and French Engligtenment. Her attention was on the Russian Empire in general. There were ramification for Estonia and the Baltics. One major advance in Estonian education was an expansion of primary education in the countrysude as a result of different all-Russian laws and regulations. This was particularly important because it was where most ethnic Estonians lived. The great majority of ethnic Estonians were a rural peasant pipulation. Catherine's degrees resulted in the first steps toward estanlishing a network of primmary schools at the village level. In addition to increasing the overall school population, girls began attending schools for the first time (late-18th century). Educating girls was especually important and more important than just immediate educational opportunity. Educating girls meant literate mothers who could teach children at home. This would play an important role in future literacy as well as the Mational Awakning )mid-19th century). A developing economy encouraged peasants to learn to read to increase job opportunities. .

Expanding Education

Important progress in education was made in the 18th century, including education of the Estonian peasantry. Most of the Ethnic Estonian popultion still livd in the countryside. There were parishes where half and in some cases even more were literate. This was not the case in much of the rest rest of Eastern Europe. Especially in Tallinn, but also in other towns, the loteracy rate was even higher, unusual for the time, especially in the Tsarist Empire. Tsarist data reveals that Army recruits had literacy rates of over 70 percentand more thab 40 percent could write (late-19th century). [Ruus] Subsequent data shows a small decline. we are not sure just why.

Class Issues (late-18th century)

One author reports changes important changes in class outlook (late-18th century. [Ruus] The prestigious Tallinn Cathedral School became increasingly exclusive. It became more of a school for young nobels. We are not sure just what was at play here. Perhaps the American and French Revolutions were unerving the aristorcracy.

The Enligtenment

The Enlightenment along with the Renaisance and Reformation were the key steps in the formation of the Western mind. Many of the most influential Enlightenment thinkers were French, but the Enlightenment was a movement which over time affected all of Europe to varying degrees. America was also affected by the Enlightenment, but the American exoerience was different, in part because of the Great Awakening. The Enlightenment is also termed the Age of Reason. Authors define it differently and there were many different aspects, but the Enlightenment at it heart was a basic turn in the Western mindset. The West for more than a milenium had been dominated by religion, often descrined as faith. Even the Reformation had not changed this. In fact the Protestants were often more consumed with faith and theological questions than the Roman church. With the Enlightenment, primacy was given to reason. Intelectuals began to think that objective truth about life and the universe could be achieved through rational thought. The advances achieved in physics, led by Sir Issac Newton in Britain, had a profound impact on European intellectuals. Enlightenment writers begasn to think that the same kind of systematic thinking could be used to understand and improve areas of human activity as well. A whole new system of aesthetics, ethics, government, and logic was developed based on reason. The Enligtenment was an era of great optimism. Enlightenment thinks were convinced that reason could dramatically improve society. They were not openly athiestic, but they were highly critical of religion which they often equated with irrationality and superstition. The Enlightement also attacked political tyranny. The intelectual ferment of the Enlightenment led to the American and subsequent Latin American revolutions as well as the French Revolution which had a much more pronounced impact on Europe. the Enlightenment prepared the foundation for both classical liberalism and capitalism. There were comparable movements in music (high baroque and classical) and art (neo-classical).

The Enligtenment in Estonia

The ideals of the Enligtenmebt were being felt, ideas like the ideal of nature, rational thinking, science, national languages, and physical education. An important element in the spread of the Enlightment in Estonia was the impact of French fashion and culture on the Russian aristocracy. France was the center of the Enlightenmnt, but the Rusian aristoracy was not as accepting of many Enligtenmnt concepts. Estonian teachers and clergymen in contrast had been more influenced by Germanyy. Many had been educated in German universities, where rationalism and other Enlightened concepts widely prevaile. Especially important was the idea that educating people, all people, was the foundation of social dvelopment. Germany at the time was already beginning to develop public schools. Nothing like this exusted in France. And the idea of teaching Estonian children in theor own language began to be discussed. Estonian August Wilhelm Hupel had studied at Jena University. He promoted the idea of schools that would use the Estonian language as the medium of intruction in medicine and agriculture. Friedrich Wilhelm Willmann studied at Göttingen and Königsberg universities and wrote educational creative stories for children in Estonian. Friedrich Gustav Arvelius who studied in Leipzig produced text books. .

Baltic Germans

While Tsarist Russia controlled Estonia, Germans played a very important role in the principality and helped spread Enligtenment ideas. The Germans had various ideas on religugion, etnicity, serfom, and other issues, but their ideas about education and enlightenment had a major impact on the the Estonians. The Germns did not believe iun social advances for the Estoinians. But the Estonians were able to learn from the Germans important ideas of the Enlightenment. The Estonians because of their iteracy and a tradition of self-improvement, embraced the Enligtenment. The Baltic region had little impct on the wider German cultural area. One authot believes it was because of the lack of a court. Estonia was a dependency of the Tsae=rist Empire wihout any local authority of its own. Another problem was that the University of Tartu was forced to close because of War (1710).

Moravian Brethern

The Moraavian Brethern had a huge impact on the commoin people of Estonia during the 18h century. The Moravian Brethern was philanthropic and pietist religious movement. This movement sought to recreate the spirit of early Christianity. It spirit was one of unity with the common man and rejectiom of the existing church and its heirarchy. The Brethern recognised the dignity and capacity to learn present in every individul. They promoted fundamental morality and quiet, inner piety. The sought to promote Christianity thriugh the grass roots. It seemed to speak tothe Estonian people. Moravia in the modern Czech Republic was a long way from Estonia, but their influence was transmitted through the established contacts with Germany. Halle in Saxony and its university was an important center of Pietism, a movement encouraged by King Frederick William I of Prussia (1713-1740) and promoted personal Bible study. Many Estonin pastors studied at Halle. As a result of their work, the first Estonian-language Bible was published in Tallinn (1739). Because of the importnce of Bible study, this had a huge impact on not only the development of native-language religious literature and the Estonian written language, but eventually the use of the Estonian lanhguage in schools. The Moravian Brethern wereorganized by exiles who fled to Saxony, the cloest German state to escape religious persecution. Halle became an especially imprtanr center for the Brehern. ia Their origins, however, date to pre-Reformation complaints to Catholic practices (15th century). The Moravian Brethren in Saxony translated and published religious literature. They enouraged Estonianns studtying un Halle to write similar works in Estonian. Germany has a strong musical tradition which also influenced Estonians studyin in Halle. Estonian Church services and musical culture by what Estonian priests brought back to their country. The Moravian movement also empacted education, Their concern with the common people mean that religiosity was embed deeper into Estonian popular culture than ever before. The Estonian peasantry as aresult was more motivated to to learn to read and write and exolore music than the peasantry in most European countries. We see large numbers of self-taught adults in Estonia and the wide-spread teaching of children at home. This became well establihed even in areas of Estonia where there was little or no Moravian influence. The education prevalent amobg Estonians became home learning supplemented by schools and religious confirmation classes (late-18th century).

University of Tartu Reopened (1802)

The University of Tartu was founded by the Swedesafter acquirung Estonia and Livonia (1632). It c;osed after the Russians seized control of the area in the Great Northern War (1710). It was reopened by the Baltic Germns (1802). Almost all of the professorts were Germans or Bltic Germans. Few Estonians or Russians had the advanced degrees neeed to lecture at the universuty level. The labguge of instruction was German. The students were both mostly Bltic Germans. This continued tobe the case throughout the 19th century, although over time small numbers of ethnic Estonians akso began to attend. With the acension of Tsar Alexander III, steps were tken to Russify the Uninversity.

Educational Reform (early-19th century)

Tsarist officials moved toward building a modern centralised education system. They divided Estonian and Livonia into educational districts with plans for a university in each. As part of this process, education in Estonia and Livonia was supervised by a Tartu University committee. Rector Georg Friedrich Parrot was put in charge of the committee. THe committee played a major role in the process of developing a network of peasant schools. The committe sought guidance on the was divided on how to proceed. Few Estonians were involved in the process. Some of the more humanist oriented clergy favored the education of the peasantry including instruction in reading and writing. Others thought that home instruction in reading would suffice. The committee proceeded to plan not only a network of peasant schools, but secondary schools which became known as parish schools in which writing, arithmetic and natural history were taught. This whole process was complicated by the abolition of serfdom after the Napoleonic Wars (1816-19). This was brought about by the reform-minded Tsar Alexander I. Serfdom was abolished in the Baltic Governorates (Estonia, Livonia and Courland) while serfdom remained in place in the rest of the Tsarist Empire. It was conceived as an eperiment in a relativelt limited area and small popultion to assess the process of abolition. The Baltic peasantry wes freed, but without land. So at first their economic situation declined. The result was that serfdom was retained i the rest of the Empire for decades. The Baltic peasantry did gain personal freedom and legal changes improved their situation. Many became small land hoilders. Initially abolition impaired eductional reform. The respinsibility for supporting schools now fell from the lndlords to the landless peasants. While they were no longer serfs, they still had to do corveé (forced) labor and could hardly afford to support a school system. Thus the network of peasant schools and parish schools developed only slowly. The inadequate number of schools was moderated in a number of ways. Itinerant teachers supervised home schooling. Sunday schools were organized and taught by literate individuals in the community. Also ‘improvement’ or ‘supplementary’ schools were organized for young people preparing for their confirmation. We also see Orthodox schools being organized. None of these expedients made up for the slowness in expancing the school system. Very few peasant children progressed beyond their village school. The new parish schools were attended by only about 4 percent of the school age population. Neverless, the early-19th century reforms were important. For the first time, substatial numbers of Estonians were receiving a basic eduxation. Many went on to teach in the village schools and homes. A major problem in expanding the school system had been the shorage of qualified teachers. A new 3-year course was set up for training village schoolmasters.

National Awakening (Mid-19th century)

Empires worked fairly well when nationalism was not a major force in European affairs. This began to change durig the early-19h century. The Napoleonic Wars were a mnajor diiver in this shift. Invasion and occupation by French armoes droive national sentiment. This shift was most immediate in the more developed and urbanized areas areas of Europe luke Germany, but gradually you see national sentiment amomg less deloped and agricultural areas. Estonia was just one of many such national ethnicities in the Austrian, German, Ottoman, and Russian Empires. And gradually the cultural consciousness and self-realisation of virtually all of the various ethnic communities developed, including Estonians, perhaps the smallest of the various groups. This movenent is referred to as ‘national awakening’. The most intense nationlist sentiment for the most part developed in the West, with Polnd perhaps being an exception. Johann Gottfrid Herder and Jean-Jacques Rousseau were important authors driving this trend. Estonians had been controlled by the Germans, Swedes and now the Russians began to develop their own national identity. And they noted that the Russians granted considerable authony to the Finns, a people with whuch they had ethnic and lingusistic ties. Expanding educatiunal opportunity, increasing use of the Estonan labguage in literature and journalism, song and folk estivals, and obstensibly non-political associations and societies. These developments were ways of prticipating in public life as part of an absolutist state. A writer in the newspaper Olevik describes Estonians as a bookish nation and their favourite reading matter is political journals. The work of humble village schoolmasters reached fruition as the National wakening progressed. Without their work, one Estonian author clains, "the birth of Estonians as a nation would have been impossible." [Ruus] They played a major role at the grass root level. They not only taught in their schools, but promoted libraries, various activities in societies and the distribution of newspapers. Many had nusical backgrounds and founded choirs and orchestras. Many of the teachers sang in choirs and often wrote regularly to newspapers. Another important factor in the national awakening Compared to other ethnic groups in the big empires and to the Russian Empire as a whole, despite serious limititations such as a well funded public education system like America and Germany and a largely peasant population, Estonia had a very high rate of general education and literacy. Nearly 95 percent of the population could read and mearly 45 percent could read and write. [1881 Census]

Russification

Tsar Alexander III rise to the throne after the Assasination of his liberal-minded father (1881). It was his father, Alexander II who had liberated the serfs (1861). Alexander III was aear of a man and a much more conservative man and adopted what are often called reactionary policies. One of these was Russification. The Jews were the group most adversely affected with terrible pograms. But all non-Russian ethnicities were affected. We are not sure at this time how Alexander's Russification policies affected Estonian education. We know major steps were taken at the university level. We are less sure about the primary and secondary schools. There were Tsarist policies that increased the Russian foot print un the Baltics. Russian began to appear in Estonian schools. Russian officials became a presence in Estonian cities. And cgradually Russian businessmen became an importaht presence.

Language Issues

Language was an important issue for any of the nationalities in the major European empires. It was an especially serious issue with a small ethnic group like the Estonians. Some national groups like the Poles were large enough that a sizeable nation state and economy could be contructed, especially in a dangerois world in hich they were located between Germany and Russia. Estonia was not. So no matter what Estonian nationalists might think, a dual language sociey had to be developed, be in German, Russiam or English. Only so many books could be translated. Estonians who wanted to pursue advanced education had to acquire a foreign language, rather like modern Israel. That said, as a matter of cultural development, Estonian language rights were vital. Into the 20th century, until independence education beyond the primary level, the lnnguage of instruction in secondary schools was German or Russian. Thus essentuially froze much of the Estonian peasantry out of advanced education beyond the primary level--the majority of the ethnic Estonians. There were both social class and ethnic issues involved here. An 1857 assessnent of boys (almost all of the students) in secondary schools show that almost none of the peasahtry (the great bulk of the ethnic Estonian population) was advancing beyond primary schools. The students consisted of: nobility (36 percent), fee exempt groups -- clergymen, officials, school and university teachers, military (34 percent), artisans (16 percent), and merchants (13 percent). Only 2 percent were from peasant families. [Ruus] It should be noted that almost all of the 98 percent of the students came from the prpsperous classes, but were also mostly ehnic Germans. The nobiliity was almost all ethnic Germans. One aspect of the Estonoan national awakening was an effort to establish Estonian-language secondary schools (1870s). There were fund raising efforts to obtain funds needed to set up an Estonian language secondary schools. Money was collected. There was, however, from the nobility and the Lutheran church to the effort. It needs to be noted that the Estonian nobility and in fact the Latvian nobility as well was not composed of ethnic Balts, but since the Christiqnization of the area was composed of mostly ethnic Germans. And the Germans also comprissed much of the leadership of the Lutheran Church. The effort to open an Estonian language secondary school failed, but at least highlighted an importan education issue that many Estonians wanted to be addressed. One source mentions multi-lingual secondary schools. We do not yet have details on this.

Towns and Cities (Turn-of-the 20th century)

Sources

Ruus, Viive-Riina. "The history of Estonian education: The story of the intellectual liberation of a nation," Estonica. (2012).

Census 1881.

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