Figure 1.--This family was from Ostrołęka Poland (Ostrolece / Ostroleka) in Russian Poland. The photographer was F. Walz Fotografja. The name of the family and dates are written on the reverse right hand side with a date of July 2, 1912. (I can't make out the names, perhaps a HBC reader can.) Put your cursor on the image to see the ornate back of the card. . Ostrołęka is a town in northeastern Poland on the Narew river, about 120 km (75 miles) northeast of Warsaw. The tunics the boys are wearing appear to be a school outfit. Notice one boy has a book and the other a cap which is a military-style school cap. We donot know if this means it was a military school.

As a result of repeated war, invasion and partition, Poland had ceased to exist as an independent country (18th century). Poles were part of the Russian, German, and Austrian Empires as a result of the Polish Partitions (1772-95). Russia had by far the largest portion of Poland, including Warsaw and central and eastern Poland. These three empires had differing policies on the ability of national groups to express their nationalism, but all in one way or the other sought to supress Polish nationalism. The Russians granted a degree of autonmy after the Napoleonic Wars, but resistance to Russian rule caused the Russians to reassess this policy. We know that Tsar Alexander III initisted a major effort at Russification thoughout the Empire. He revoked the constitution that had been granted Poland and in Poland and other areas initiated efforts to Russify not only Poland, but other national groups. Schools were required to operate in Russian. We do not have details on the extent to which Polish-language schools were permitted in the areas of Poland annexed by Austria and Prussia. We believe that the Austrians were more flexivle on this than the Russians and Prussians. Eve Currie's biography about her mother Madam Currie has a chapter about Marie Currie's education. It is in the early chapters of the biography that describe Russiaification. Polish language school were driven underground. [Curie] We have little information on the uniforms or clothes worn at these schools. Here we see the school outfits of boys going to school in the Russian sector of Poland (figure 1). They wear a Russian blouse-syled uniform. Note the belts worn over the tunic top. We also note two Polish brothers in the Austrian sector of Poland duing 1918. The boys look to be wearing some kind of school uniform, but quire different than the boys here.

Polish Partitions

Poland had been one of the great European powers. We have no information on Polish sgools durung the medieva; period. In the early modern period, Poland begn to desintegrate. As a result of repeated war, invasion and partition, Poland had ceased to exist as an independent country (18th century). Poles were part of the Russian, German, and Austrian Empires as a result of the Polish Partitions (1772-95). Russia had by far the largest portion of Poland, including Warsaw and central and eastern Poland. These three empires had differing policies on the ability of national groups to express their nationalism, but all in one way or the other sought to supress Polish nationalism.

Congress Poland

Napoleon moved to create an indeoendent Poland, creating btheDuch of Warsaw. This thus changed the boundaries dividing Poland between the three empires. After the defeat of Napoleon, under the Congress of Vienna, Congress Poland was created within the Tsarist Empire. After a Polish rebellion, Tsarist authorities suppressed Congress Poland. This was all before the invention of photographt. We know nothing about

Russian Empire

The Russians granted a degree of autonmy after the Napoleonic Wars, but resistance to Russian rule caused the Russians to reassess this policy. We know that Tsar Alexander III initisted a major effort at Russification thoughout the Empire. He revoked the constitution that had been granted Poland and in Poland and other areas initiated efforts to Russify not only Poland, but other national groups. Schools were required to operate in Russian. We are less sure about commercial enterprises. Eve Currie's biography about her mother Madam Currie has a chapter about Marie Currie's education. It is in the early chapters of the biography that describe Russification. Polish language school were driven underground. [Curie] We have little information on the uniforms or clothes worn at these schools. Here we see the school outfits of boys going to school in the Russian sector of Poland (figure 1). They wear a Russian blouse-syled uniform. Note the belts worn over the tunic top. There were many different styles of uniforms worn t schools, but asll had a military look. Russian control of Poland ended until World War I when the Germans invaded and seized control (1914-15).

German Empire

We do not have detailed information on the extent to which Polish-language schools were permitted in the areas of Poland annexed by Prussia. Under Prussian rule, there was considerable tolerance for non-German speakers. Polish was only one of the non-German languages spoken. This changed in the late-19th century with the unification of Germany and the creation of the German Empire (1871). Germany also initiated an aggressive Germinization effortcalled the Kulturkampf (culture war). This was pursued in several ways. Many Poles changed their names Under the Namensänderungsgesetz (law of changing surnames)to "Germanised" forms. This was primarily done in the Ruhr area, not the Polish areas of eastern Germany. Thi helped avoid ethnic discrimination. Prussia had been a largely Protestant country. Prussian authorities wjo became German imperial authorities began supressing Catholic church services in the Polish language by Polish priests. The Poles were forced to turn to German Catholic priests. Intermarriage between Germans and Poles promoted the Germanisation of ethnic Poles in the Ruhr area, but this was much less common in eastern Germany. As eries of policies sought to ensure that only German was used in academic settings. We believe that eventually only German was permitted in the schools. It certainly was the only language of instruction. We suspect that the children could not even speak Polish outside the classroom while at school. Russia expanded the area of Poland it controlled as a result of the Napoleonic War. The area around Lodz has been controlled by Prussia, but became part of Congress Poland and then part of the Tsarist Empire. Germany briefly revovered this as well as all of Poland during World war I (1914-15). Germany retined control of Poland until the end ofvthecWar when as partb of the Armitice, the Germans wererequiredto withdraw from Poland.

Austro-Hungarian Empire

We believe that the Austrians were more flexivle on this than the Russians and Prussians. We also note two Polish brothers in the Austrian sector of Poland duing 1918. The boys look to be wearing some kind of school uniform, but quire different than the boys here.

Sources

Curie, Eve. Vincent Sheean (trans.) Madame Curie: A Biography (DaCapo Press, 2001), 448p.

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