Figure 1.--These Yemeni Jewish women wear niqabs,similar to burqas. Notice the beautiful embroidery work on their sleeves. Men wear side curls. The man is Modhe Nahari. His father was a prominant community leader killed by gunmen. He is standing with his daughters in front of the Yemni court conducting the traial of the gunman.

Yemeni Jews trace their history to the time of King Solomon. The sources are legendary. They believe that King Solomon dispated Jewish merchants by ship to prospect for gold and silver needed to ador the Great Temple Yemeni Jews also claim that Jewish craftsmen were requested by Bilqis, Queen of Sheba. Notably the Beta Israel or Chabashim (Ethiiopian Jews) have a similar tradition as to their origins which has the Queen of Sheba marring King Solomon. Such traditions while not the same as recorded history should not be dismissed. Both Bilqis and Solomon were historical figures. And at the time Sheba controlled parts of Yemen and Ethiopia. Yemen was conquered by the Arabs (7th century). The status of Jews in Yemeni society was radicaly changed. The Yemeni Government reserected an ancient law which required Jewish orphans under age 12 be converted to Islam (1922). The country's largest Jewish community was located in Aden. News that the United Nations approved a plan to partition Palestine caused riots in Aden (1947). Rioters assisted by the Yemeni police carried out a pogrom that killed 82 Jews and destroyed hundreds of homes. The rioters also destroyed Jewish stores and businesses leaving the Jewish community destitute. Further rioting and looting followed trumped up charges that Jews had ritually murdered two girls (1948). Israel organized Operation "Magic Carpet" to rescue the endangered Jewish population. Almost all of the Yemeni Jews left the country, about 50,000 people (June 1949- September 1950). Small number of Jews remained and they were allowed to emigrate as they desired. A civil war broke out (1962) ad authorities halted any further Jewish emigration. It was believed at the time that there were no longer ay Jews in Yemen. An American diplomat by accident encountered a small Jewish community living in an isolated part of northern Yemen (1976). These Jews had not participated in Operation Magic Carpet for a variety of reasons, including their isolation as well as problems like sick relatives unable to travel. Isolated in remote reas, many had abadned their faith and converted. Yemeni authorities do allow the,m to practice their faith. There are reportedly two synagogues. One report suggests that in recent years about 400 Jews have mnaged to emigrate to Israel depite a Goverment prohibition.

Etnnicity

The relative tolerant Mulim attitude changed when the fervently Islamic Zaydi tribesmen from the central highlands seized power (10th century). The Zaidiyyah were a branch of Shia Islam. The Zaydiir imamate would last under varying circumstances until the Yemeni Republican Revolution of 1962. The Zayid Clan began the severe persecution of Jews. [Blady, p. 9.] The Holy Koran, like many religious texts, is a contradictory scripture with provisions preaching tolerance and other scriptur ptomoting intolernce and violence. The Zaydi focused on the more intolerant surahs of the Koean. The Zaydi regarded the Jews as impure. They were prohibited from touching a Muslim person or their food. They were required to humble themselves when encountering Muslims. They had to walk to the left side and greet a Mulim first. A Muslim could chose to respond. They were prohibited from building homes higher than their Muslim neighbors. They were not allowed to mount a camel or horse. And when riding mule and donkeys had to sit sideways. When entering the Muslim quarters, Jewd had to remove their footwear and walk barefoot. These were matters of status and prestige, but there were other matters that put Jews in physical danger. Jews were not permitted to protect themselves from physical attack. Mischief boys might throw stones. Jews were mot permitted to stop them. They had to either flee or plead with Muslims to intervene. [Blady, p. 10.] Of course there were sitations much more violent then boys thrwing stones, such as adults with maleovent vil intent such as robbers or people who just did not like Jews. The most serious threat to Yemeni Jews came with Abd-al-Nabī ibn Mahdi (12th centyry). Violence reched unprecedented levels. Jews were given the choice of conversion or martyrdom. [Halkin and Hartman, p. 91.] One inflential Jewish elder called for Jews to accept martyrdom. A great Jewish scholar sent what is now known as the Iggeret Teman (Epistle to Yemen) recommending that Temeni Jews remain faithful to their religion, but if possible, not to cast affronts at before their persecutirs. [Maimonides]

Rasulids (13th century)

The Rasulids seized control from the Zaydi (1229). The Rasulids clan usually provided the Yemeni imans. They are commonly known as the Banu Rassi or Rassids. The term Rassids is variously used. Western sources usually refers to the Imams of the medieval period up to the 16th century as the Rasulids. The Rassid group that came to power with imam al-Mansur al-Qasim (r. 1597-1620) is referred to as the Qasimids (Al al-Qasimi). This was the beginning of the Qasimid Dynastyor the Qasimids who were a Rasulid branch. Persecition of the survuving Jews receded. One source records the Rasulid dynasty as ending (1474). This is complicated, others extend the Rasulids and the Qasimids into the Ottoman era. The promblem here is that they may have lost power in the cities, but retreted into the interior and were not totally eliminated. The history of medieval Zaydi imams is very limited. It is known that there wre a substantilly numbers who attempted to comtrol the imanate. Few managed to establish any formal administration pf any substance, especially regularized tax collection or any sucess in promoting Zaydi goals. The limited available evisence suggests little continuity betweem imans and frequent violent struggles between Zaydi families and clans vying for control overt the imanate. One historian estimates that in a representative 200 year period there were more than 20 some candidates for the imamate from more than ten sepatate clans (13th-15th centuries).

Ottoman Empire (1574)

The primary Arab stte at the beginning of the 16th century was the Eguptian-cntered Mamluk Sultanate. The Ottoman Empire at the heighth of its power after conquering the Byzantine Empire (1453) intensified its expansion north into the Christian Balkans and south into the Muslim Arab Lands, This began in force (1485). The decisive struggle was the Ottoman–Mamluk War (1516–1517) leading to the fall of the Mamluk Sultanate. As a result, the Ottoman Empire incorporated the heart of the Arab world into their E,pire. This meant the Levant, Egypt, and the Arabian Peninsula. The War essentially transformed the Ottoman Empire from a Muslim state at the margins of the Islamic world (Anatolia and the Balkans) to a vast realm controlling not only the traditional Arab lands, but Mecca itself. And the Ottoman Emperor was transforned into the sulan, the most important figure uin Islam. Yemen was located in the tip of the Arabin Peninsula. and it took some time for the Ottomans to extend thir contol all the way to Yemen (1574). This was important for Yemeni Jews. Ottoman rule was not only relativly tolerant. but it opened up the prospct of commuicting with Jews througout the vast Ottomn Empire. This meant contact with the Kabbalists in Safed (Tz’fat), a major Jewish center (Tz’fat in Hebrew) in Palestine. This ment exposure to Sephardic Jewish thinking. Ottoman rule did not last long. Yemen was on the perifery of the Ottoman Empire and both difficlt and expensive for the Ottomans to maintain control. The Zaydi tribesmen were removed from power, but not from Yemen. The Zaydi still dominated the northern highlands, (especially Hashid and Bakil) were a persistant threat to Ottoman rule of the Arabian Peninsula. [Jacob, p. 70.] The Ottomans to legitimize their presence in Arabia accused the Zaydis and their austere form of Islam of being infidels. [Nahrawālī, p. 197.] The Ottoman Sultan appointed Hassan Pasha governor of Yemen and for a while there was relative peace (1585-97). The students of of Zaydi scholar al-Mansur al-Qasim wanted him to proclaim an immamate and fight the Ottomans. He demured for some time, but was shocked when the Ottomans began promoting the moderate Hanafi school of jurisprudence at the expense of Zaydi Islam. He proclaimed Zaydi Imamate (September 1597). This was at the sane time that Ottomans opned the al-Bakiriyya Mosque. [Tuchscherer] The Bakiriyya Dom is a beutiful mosque in Sana'a undertaken by Hassan Pasha. Gradually Imam al-Mansur ('The Victorious) achieved control over the highlands and the Ottomans agreed to a 10-year truce (1608). [Nahrawālī, p. 197.] Imam al-Mansur al-Qasim died (1620). His son Al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad succeeded him and at first confirmed his father's truce with the Ottomans, but began to undermine their control. The Ottomans lost Aden and Lahej (1627). Ottoman authorities ordered their governor Abdin Pasha to suppress the growing revolt, but failed and had to retreat to Mocha. [Tuchscherer] Al-Mu'ayyad finally expelled the Ottomans from Sana'a (1628). This left only Zabid and Mocha in Ottoman hands. Al-Mu'ayyad captured Zabid (1634). He allowed the Ottomans to leave Mocha umollested. [126] Mocha was Yemen's busiest port in the 17th and 18th century and thus effectively ended Ottoman rule. Al-Mu'ayyad's success was in part access to modern fire arms and his ability to unify his often quarelling tribal people. [Salim, p. 357.] The Ottomans could have regained control, but their calculation would have greatly exceeded the potential value, especially as the European had established direct maritime contact of the Indian Ocean fundamentally changing trade routes.

The Zaydi Regain Control (1630)

The Zaydi regained control of Yemen (1630). The Ottomans retained contol of Mecca. But Yemen was too far an too poor to interest the Ottomans to expend the money to retain control. The loss of Muslim control over the Indian Ocean greatly reduced the economic value of Yemen. Control of trade routes to the east was of huge economic importance to the Ottomans. As the Europeans established marutime connections with the East. the Ottoman Empire lost one of its primary underpinnings. And Yemen lost its once important role as a part of the connection betweem trade between the East and Christian Europe. For Jews this meant renewed perscecution. The Imamate began some of the harshest discriminatory laws (Ar. ghiyar) experienced by the Yemeni Jews. Al-Mahdi Ahmad ordered the mass expulsion of Yemeni Jews to the isolated, bleak province of Mawza (1679). This was a hot and arid region located in the Tihama coastal plain. And to make maters orse, the Jews has not allowed to be farmers, they were artisans. AlMahdi had their hpmes and possessions seized. Synagogues were destroyed or converted into mosques. This action came to be called the Mawza exile, Much of the Jewish community perished there because of the forced expulsion and conequent starvation and disease. Historians believe that two-thirds of the exiled Jews perished. [Tobi] The Yemenite Jewish rabbi and poet Shalom who was among the exiles chronicled the tragedy. Only a year after the exile, Al-Mahdi allowed the impoverished survivors to return. It was not a chang of heart. It was basic economics. Jews were the majority of craftsmen and artisans. They thus played a central role in Yemen's economy. They had to find new himes and their property and rlgious artifcts were gone for good. They were forced to create a new communiy outside the cities. Over time Ymeni Jews had acquired expertise in a range of trades in which Zaydi Muslims had no interest. This included skilled professiins like silver-smithing, blacksmiths, repairing weapons and tools, weaving, pottery, masonry, carpentry, shoe making, and tailoring. Muslims weremore intersted less skilled agriculture. As Jews were seen as social outcasts, their trades although requiring skills were seen as less prestigious than agriculture. Even so, the division of labor (with no Koranic basis) created a kind of protection for Jews. There was a mutual ependency between the Zaydi Muslima and Jews . Muslims produced the food and the Jews supplied the manufactured products and services that the Muslim farmers required. [Ḥibshush, pp. 714-15.]

Qasimid State (16th - 17th centuries)

The most powerful Zaydi poltical structure proved to be the Qasamid state which appeared t the end of the medieval era. A Qasimid side-branch inaugurated the Mutawakkilite Kingdom of Yemen. The cQasimids established diplomatic relations with the Safavid dynasty of Persia, the Ottomans who has seized te Hejaz, the Mughal Empire in India and Fasilides in Ethiopia This occurred contempraneosly with the arrival of the Europeans and Ottomans (16th centuru). The Europeans entered the Middle East from the south--meaning Kuwait. Kuwait at the tip of the Arabian Peninsula hd been shielded from Christian Europe by the Caliphate, the Mallukes and finally the Ottomans. An Kuwait benefittd from being part of the trade routes beteen the east and both the Muslim world and Christian Europe. This all changed when first the Portuguese and then others roundd Africa and entered the Indian Ocean. Muslim technology proved unable to compete with the advnced nvlntechnology of the Europen. They were unable to maintain a hold on the Indin Ocean (Arabin Sea) trade routes. While the Europeans seized control of the trade roots, they were not akl that interested in expending scarce resources seizing control of territory. It was the Ottomans from the north with powerful armies that were the greter threat. Ottoman military expeditions managed to defeat the Zayid highland tribesmen (mid-16th century). The Ottomans, however, were unwilling to expend major resources to hold such a poor province. Al-Mansur al-Qasim, belonging to one the Zaydi Rassid branches (which became known as the Qasimids), raised the standard of Shite Islam and rebellion. His son al-Mu'ayyad Muhammad added to his father's victories and managed to gain control of all of most of what is now Yemen. He suceeded in driving out the Ottomans, and establishing the most powerful Zayid political entity. The Qasimids manged to rule as a hereditary dynasty. This was an era in which Yemen prospered. This was because of the rising popularity of coffee in Europe and the Ottoman Empire. And despite the loss of trade because of the European sea power, managed to build a sucessful economy based on coffee. The growing popularity of coffee in the Ottoman Empire and susequently Christian Europe made this a very valuable commodity. For a time, Yemen controlled world coffee production. [Hanna, p. 124.] Mocha/Moka was the main port in the Yemeni trade, a name still associated with coffee. .

Decline of the Qasimid Imamate (18th - 19th centuries)

The late Qasimid era was a period of change and competion for power (18th century). There was at time moderate rule which meant a brief respite from intoreant rule. After the tragic Mawza Exile, the Qasimids appear to have recognized the economic importance of the Jews, realizing that Arabs benefitted from the energy of these remarkable people. There was, as aesult, a resurgence of Jewish life within the desvestated Jewish community. Jews rebuilt their synagogues. Some Jews even managed to achieve importnt offices. Rabbi Shalom ben Aharon became responsible for minting and for overseeing the royal coffers. The power of the Qasimid imamate began to decline (late-17th century). The imamate began to lose territory. A factor here was economic decline. Yemen lost its monopoly on coffee--its only product of any importance. The Europeans begn to develop coffee plantations in their tropical colonies. The Qasimid state was important in the hands of impressive rulers, but there were always tensions between Zayid tribes and Qasamid central state. There wer important differences netween tribal culture and Islamic teachings. The Qyasid imams attempted to adopt the ruling style of Middle East monarchies and in the process becoming distant figures to the tribesmen, bith geographically abd culturally. This mean that they gradually lost their charismatic and spiritual appeal to the Yemeni tribes which were the base of their power. And they had to compete with the rising power of both the Europeans and Ottomans. And the economy began to decline. The Europeans as the popularity of coffee grew managed to break Yemen's monopoly on coffee growing (early-18th century). The Dutch led the way, smuggling saplings out of Mocha. They began growing coffee in their colonies (East Indies, East Africa, the West Indies and Latin America). [Colburn, p.15.] The imammate did not follow a cohesive mechanism for succession, and family quarrels and tribal insubordination led to the political decline of the Qasimi dynasty in the 18th century. The Lahej governor declared himself an independent sultan in defiance of the Qasimid Dynasty and seized control of Aden. He established the Sultanate of Lahej (1728-31). The rabidly Islamist Wahhabi movement further north in Arabia Peninsula cost the Qasimid state coastal possessions (after 1803). The Qasimid imamnate was able to regain them temporarily (1818). But the Ottoman viceroy in Egypt brgan to push militarry forces south from Mecca and gained control of northern coastal provinces (1833). The Immate began to desintegrate with internal disorder. The imamate began changed hands with greater frequency. Sevral imams were assassinated. As the Ottomans seized control, the Zaidi tribes descended into chaos and intra-tribal fighting. This lasted for decades.

British Aden (1839-1967)

Aden is the best natural port along the Arabian peninsula. As aesult it has been an iportant entrepôt and a supply point for seamen since ancient times. The Portuguese seized it for a time (16th century) as well as the Ottoman snd various Yemeni groups. As Yemen lot its monopoly on coffee, the economy declined. Authorities in Aden turned a blind eye to piracy and even sgared in the proceeds. The British East India Company landed Royal Marines at Aden to secure the port (1839). The immediate concern was pirate attacks on British shipping routes connecting India and Egypt. This was an imprtant British trade oute even before the Suez Canal. As in North Africa, Islamic resistance to modern technology meant that as in North Africa, Europe developed modern productive economies, the Arabs remained mired in the medieval world. The Arab response was piracy and an attempt to prey upon the increasing bounty of European commerce. The same as conducted by the Barbary corsairs. The Royal Navy also need supply bases as the attempted to end the Arab Indian Ocean slave trade. The British declared Aden a free trade port. While the Brutish ended the slave trade through aden, liquor, salt, arms, and opium were important. And the British won the coffee trade from Mocha/Mokha. Jews werean important part of the merchant and artisan class and pritcted under British rule. Aden was roughly equidistant from the Suez Canal, Mumbai (India), and Zanzibar, other important British possessions. British shipping could replenish needed supplies in Aden, especially water. Sailing ships were autonomous except for food and water. This changed with the development of steam power which required coal. With the opening of the Suez Canal (1869), Aden became even more important as steamships needed a place to obtain coal and boiler water. A coaling station was opened at Steamer Point. Aden remained under British control (until 1967).

Second Ottoman Era (1848-1918)

The Otomans proved more of a threat than the British. The British were just after a port. The Ottomans wanted to restablish their control of the entire orovince. The imamate did not have the power or modern arms to stop either. The Ottoman seized lowland Yemen (1848). There was support for the Ottomans anong the merchant class. Ottoman rukw would open up commercial opportunities throughout the Empire. It took much longer to gain some control of the inland highlands tribal areas (1872). The opening of the Suez Cnal increased Ottoman interest un aden. The Ottoman gained control of the cities and coastal area, but never completely quash Yemeni resistance. Jewish life improved during Ottoman rule as it had during the earlier Ottoman era. Ottoman authorities respected Jewish freedom of religion to a greater degree than the Yeminis were prone to do. Yemeni Jews were able to establish contact with with other Jewish communities. The Ottoman made some effort to secularize Yemeni society. Jews for the first time began to see themselves as real members of Yemeni society. Ottoman attitides toward the Jews were in part simple imperial ruling policy. Large minorities (the Balkan Cgristians, the anatolian rmenuans, and the Arabs) were a threat. Yemeni Arab resistance opposing the Ottomans for centuries is aood example. The Jews weresuch a small minority that they ciuld be relied on to remain loyal. At the same time Yemeni Arabs continued to look down on Jews. And the general poverty of Yemen affected Jews and Arabs alike. The Yemenis did not succeed in driving out the Ottomans until the British World war I Palestine campaign and Arab Revolt (1917-18).

Inter-War Years (1920s-30s)

The Yemenis achieved indendence from the Ottoman Empire at the end of World War I (1918). The independent state was in the north. The British retained control over southern Yemen (Aden). As in other Asian countries, Ottoman rule had been a moderating influence, often protecting Jews and other minorities. After independence, Yemeni Arab authorities adopted harsh new laws. The Yemeni Government in the northern part of the country almost immediately reserected an ancient law which required Jewish orphans under age 12 be converted to Islam (1922). The country's largest Jewish community was located in British controlled Aden where they received a degree of protection.

Anti-Jewish Riots (1947-48)

Jews remained a geneally despised minority by the Arab minority in Yemen. Despite British and Ottoman adminitrations, Yemeni society was largely unaffected by modernizing unfluences in some Arab countries. Yemenis who hardly recogized Yemeni nationalism because of their trbal loyalties, had no trouble embracin Arab nationalim as long as the target was the lowly Jews. Jews were for morethan a mellinum a subject people. The idea that they were to have their own couuntryand of all things in the heart of what was seen as the Arab heartland enfurited Yemnis. News that the United Nations approved a plan to partition Palestine caused riots in Aden (1947). Rioters assisted by the Yemeni police carried out a pogrom that killed 82 Jews and destroyed hundreds of homes. tHe riots were primarily in Aden where most Jews lived. The British made little effort to intervene. The rioters also destroyed Jewish stores and businesses, leaving the Jewish community destitute. Further rioting and looting followed trumped up charges that Jews had ritually murdered two young Arab girls (1948). Arabs and left-wing groups wold have you believe that such outbreaks of violence as the fault of the Zionists. The simple fact is that such violemce aagainst was a repeated feature if Arab society for over a millenium. This was true of Yemen, but every Arab country has it own history of violence toward Jews.

Operation Magic Carpet (1949-50)

Israel organized Operation "Magic Carpet" to rescue the endangered Jewish population. Almost all of the Yemeni Jews left the country, about 50,000 people (June 1949-September 1950). This was the vast majority of Yenmen's Jewish community. Small number of Jews remained, about 2,000 people. They were allowed to emigrate as they desired and over time most trickled out, many to Israel. Nely estanlished Isreal at the time did not have the money or planes to transport the Yemeni Jews. The American United Jewish Appeal played an important role in financing the effort. And the American Seaboard and Western Airlines transported the refugee Jews.

Civil War (1960s)

A civil war broke out (1962) and authorities halted any further Jewish emigration. Any Jews stillmin Yemen were stuck. It was believed at the time that there were no longer any significant numbers of Jews in Yemen. An Isreali expert on Yemeni Jews says, "For three decades, there were no telephone calls, no letters, no travelng overseas. The fact there were Jews in Yemen was barely known outside Israel." [Tawil]

Communal Life

A journalist describes the Yemeni Jews, "Many can recite passages of the Torah by heart and read Hebrew, but can't read their native tongue of rabic. {we are not sure that 'native' is the proper term. They live in stine houses, often without running warer or electricity. One Yemni woman showed up t the airport expecting to bord her flight with a live chicken." [Jordan]

Isolated Population

An American diplomat by accident encountered a small Jewish community living in an isolated part of northern Yemen (1976). These Jews had not participated in Operation Magic Carpet for a varirty of reasons, including their isolation as well as problems like sick relatives unable to travel. Isolated in remote areas, many had abandoned their faith and converted. Yemeni authorities do allow them to practice their faith. There are reportedly two synagogues. Jews hang on in Raida (north of Sanaa) and other remote towns. One report suggests that about 400 Jews have managed to emigrate to Israel despite a Goverment prohibition. Yemen was one of the few countries to back Sadam Hussein in the First Gulf War that liberated Kuwait (1990). To rebuild relations with the West, the Yemeni Government allowed Jews to freely travel for the first time in three decades. About 1,200 Jews departed at that time, most to Israel. American Ambassador Arthur Huges says that those who remained said, "This is where we hve been for centuries. We are OK; we're not going anywhere." [Jordan] These Jews were concentrated in two areas, Raida near Sanaa and Saada, a remote village to the north. Not soon after the situation began to deteriorate. A Shiite rebellion broke out in Saada. An estimate 50,000 people were displaced as aesult of fighting between government troops and the Houthis Shiite rebel groups. The Gouthis were especially hostile to the Jews, accusing them of being spies for Israel and the Government as well as corupting the morals of Muslims. Armed men threatened the Saana Jews. The community of about 60 people fled to Sanaa. There they received government support. This left Raida as the only Yemni Jewish community. The increasing radicalization of Yemen in recent years has put the remaining Yemeni Jews in great danger. Attacks on the small Jewish community increased when one of the most prominant Jewish leader was shot dead (2008). President Saleh made some effot to protect Jews, but the northern rebellion made this impossible. The father of Moshe Nahari was shot by gunmen (December 2008). Here is son and granddughters standing outside the court hearing the case (figure 1). illed outside a Yemeni court with his daughter. Yemeni Jews tried to hide their identify by wrapping their side curls and scull cap in a turban. The U.S. State Department has been conducting a clandestine operation to get these last remaining Jews out of the country and bring them to America. This followed a year of mounting harassment and vilent attacks. The State Department estimated that there were still about 350 Jews in Yemen before the State Department launced the effort to save them (July 2009). A press report indicated that 60 have been resettled in the United States and another 100 could follow. [Jordan, p. 1.]

Arab View

In dealing with the Middle East one can not help, but be reminded of Orwellian New Speak in which black is white and white is black. We have found a site which claims that most Jews (meaning American a Israeli Jews) are not real genetic Jews. And it is inly the Jews in Arab countries like Yemen that are true Jews. The site, Zio Mania, claims that Yemeni Jews are wonderfully treated and that America and Israel only tempted them out of Yemen because they were offered gold. Unsaid by the webmaster here and other Arab sites is that the population of non-Muslims, not only Jews, but Christians, Bahi, Druze, Hundus, and ohers are indeed assault throughout the Arab and wider Muslim world. The statistics are undeniable. And this flifht occurs both in war zones (Syria and Iraq) and countries not at war (Egypt). Such nonsence can be found throughout the Web, but one notable aspect of this site are some beautiful photographs of Yemeni Jews. There is not description of when and where these photographs were taken and who took them. Prhaps HBC readers will know something about these images.

Sources

Blady, Ken. Jewish Communities in Exotic Places (Jason Aronson Inc.: 2000).

Colburn, Marta. The Republic of Yemen: Development Challenges in the 21st Century (CIIR: 2002_.

Halkin, Abraham S. and David Hartman, eds. The Epistles of Maimonides: Crisis and Leadership (Jewish Publication Society: 1985).

Hanna, Nelly. Society and Economy in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, 1600–1900: Essays in Honor of André Raymond (American University in Cairo Press: 2005).

Ḥibshush, Rabbi Ḥayim. “Qorot Yisra’el be-Teman" in Yosef Qafiḥ, ed., Ketavim (Collected Papers), Vol. 2, (Jerusalem: 1989).

Jacob, Harold F. Kings of Arabia: The Rise and Set of the Turkish Sovranty in the Arabian Peninsula (Garnet & Ithaca Press" 2007).

Jordan, Miriam. "Secret mision rescues Yemen's Jews," The Wall Street Journal (October 21-November 1, 2009), pp. A1, 16.

Maimonides. "The Epistles to Yemen".

Nahrawālī, Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad. Lightning Over Yemen: A History of the Ottoman Campaign in Yemen, 1569–71 [البرق اليماني في الفتح العثماني] (in Arabic).(OI.B.Tauris: 2002).

Salim, Musflafâ Sayyid Salim. (1974). "al-Fath al-'Uthmani al-Awwal li-l-Yaman" [الفتح العثماني الأول لليمن] (in Arabic) (1974).

Tawil, Hayim. Professor at Yashiva University. In Jordan, "Secret mision rescues Yemen's Jews," The Wall Street Journal (October 21-November 1, 2009), pp. A1, 16.

Tobi, Yosef. "Mawzaʿ, Expulsion of." Norman A. Stillman, Executive Editor. Encyclopedia of Jews in the Islamic World (Brill Online: 2014).

Tuchscherer, Michel. "Chronologie du Yémen (1506–1635)".

Created: 2:36 AM 1/3/2012
Last updated: 4:27 PM 1/6/2018