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Adolf Hitler constantly denigrated Winston Churchill seeing him as a deabauched drunkard. Hitler was a vegitarian who took great care with his diet and neither drank or smoked. Churchill ate, smoked, and drank to excess, living to the ripe old ge of 90. One top NAZI quietly wrote about Churchill in his diary, "This man is a mixture of heroism and cunning. If he had been in power in 1933, we wouldn't be where we are now. And I believe he will cause us other problems. We must not underestimate him." Goebbels knew better thn to have major disagreements with the Führer, but was often quite frank in his diary.
-- Dr. Josef Goebbels, NAZI Propaganda Minister, 1940.
The person who interacted primarily with Churchill during the War was Field Marsahal Alan Brooke. Churchill would commonly keep him up into the wee hours of the morning coming up with ideas, many of them poorly thouht out. Brooke had to argue with him, often on the same idea he particularly supported like invading Norway which Churchil mwould bring up again and again. Unlike Churchill, Brooke kept normal hours and had to get up in the vmorning even after after CHurchill had kept him up late into the night. Thats said, Brooke wrote after one more infuriating night of controversy. "With all of this he is a wonderful man. What shold we do without him?"
-- Field Marshall Alan Brooke, Chief of the Imperial General Staff
NAZI Germany posed a danger to Western Civilization unequaled since Gengis Kahn. For over a year it was only valliant Britain which opposed the NAZI juggernaught in Europe. It was at this time that Britain could have lost World War II. After the fall of France, victory was no longer possible and Britain's very survival was at stake. It was at this time that Britain and America might have well lost the War. Chamberlain did not favor Churchill as his replacenment. He wanted Lord Halifax, but when Halifax wavered, he reluctantly turned to Churchill. Churchill was involved in most of the major Allied decesions of the War. There are probably three major contributions that Churchill made to the War. First, from the very beginning he saw the central importance of the United States. Second, even with German armies smashing into France, he was determined to resist the NAZIs. There would be no dealing with Hitler and the NAZIs, no British Vichy. Many thought that Britain like France had lost the War. Third, he tempered American enthusiasm for an early cross-Channel invasion with the realities of German military capacity. Churchill became primeminister just as the Grmans launched their Western Offensive resulting in the fall of France. It was at the very low ebb of British power. He was faced with terrible decesions and limited resources. No man in such a position could have failed to made some decisions that historians would later ctiticise. And no historian could fail to find mistakes or questionable decisions. In real life, the only person who does not make mistakes is an individual who does not make a real effort. A competebt hitorian will, however, consider his leadership as a whole and ask if with the limited resources Britain possessed could any one have done better? And Churchill accomplished the centrl British achievement of the War, to stand alone against Hitler until the German dictator inevitably turned East and America came into the War. Chrchill knew that America would eventually com in to the War, but when? (He once quipped, "Americans can always be trusted to do the right thing, once all other possibilities have been exhausted.") Thanks to Churchill there was no British Vichy with all the devestating consequences of making peace with Hitler.
Franklin Roosevelt
Roosevelt and Churchill had begun to correspond when Churchill entered the Government as First Lord of the Admiralty in September 1939. It was a remarkable correspondence and was to continue throughout World War II between the two men who would play key roles in effect saving Western Civilization. 【Tarapani】 One historian was to refer to it as "the supreme partnership". They were two very different men both in character and outlook, but Roosevelt was aware of Churchill's long struggle to alert Britain to the dangers posed by Hitler and the NAZIs. The men were so different with such different vissions of their respective countries' interests that on has to wonder if any series of events short of the rise of Hitler would have drawn them together. 【Schlesinger】 Churhchill's goal was to draw America into the War. Roosevelt at first still hoped that Hitler could be stopped without using American troops. President Roosevelt played a key role in forging the great Arsenal of Democracy that would in the end play a key role in saving Britain and destroying the Axis.
Valiant Britain
Churchill, on the outbreak of World War II, was immediately appointed First Lord of the Admiralty. After Chamberlain had resigned, many assumed Lord Halifax would replace Chamberlain. He could have had the job and he was prepared to deal with Hitler. It is unclear why he stepped aside. It appears that he realized he was not up to the job. Churchill was. On May, 10, 1940, the day the NAZIs struck in the West, Churchill was made Prime Minister of the war time coalition government. Just 3 days later he made his famous "Blood, Toil, Tears and Sweat" speech. There was much support within the War Cabinent for making a deal with Hitler. Lord Beaverbrook was convinced that it was the only course. It was Churchill that carried the day and the British decided to resist the NAZI onslaught. After the fall of France, Britain could no longer loose the War, but thet it could have lost the War. 【Luckacs】 At the time many in Britian and Americam thought the War was lost and Britain could not stand alone against German military prowess. The photographs and political cartoons of Churchill with his "V" for victory sign became a symbol for resistance to the NAZIs during the darkest days of the War. To Churchill and Britain the world owes an eternal debt of gratitude. Without Britain the Germans may have been defeated, but almost certainly the Soviets would have succeded in taking over most of Western Europe. The British stirred by Churchill, dealt the NAZIs there first defeat--the Battle of Britain. A British rabbi summarized our debt to Churchil succinctly, He wished Prime Minister Churchill a happy 70th birthday with the message, "But for your wisdom and courage there would have been a Vichy England lying prostrate before an all-powerful Satanism that spelled slavery to the western peoples, death to Israel, and night to the sacred heritage of man." (1944) 【Hertz】
Speeches
As President Kennedy explained, "He mobilized the English language and sent it into battle." The amazing thing about Churchill's speeches is not only the inspired delivery, but the fact that he wrote them himself. A journalist describing Churchill's oratory writes, "Churchill didn't just exhort the British people ('We shall fight on the beaches ...") and denounce Hitler (' ... every stain of his infected and corroding fingers will be ... blasted from the surface of the earth'). He also marshalled humor into definace ("They though that they would wring our neck like a chicken. Some chicken! Some neck!') and even made a point of pronouncing the word 'NAZI' with a drawn-out nasal 'a' and a soft, slushy 'z' that makes it sound like something disgusting discovered beneath a toilet seat." 【Ringle, p. F1.】 Churchill's speeches were carefully constructed. He believed that the 'scaffolding' of a great speech was constructed with elements such as contrast, rhyme, echo, alliteration, and metaphor. Phrases of Churchill's speeches have become incorporated into the English language, such as 'Iron Curtain' and 'summit conference' as well as whole phrases. There was the memorable passage about the RAF in the Battle of Britain, "Never in the history of humna conflict has so much been owed to so few by so many." Or after the victory at El Alamein, " ... is not the end ... not even the beginning of the end. But it is, perhaps, the end of the beginning." 【Humes】
Soviet Russia
One of the other significant points in the political history of the War was the alliance with Soviet Russia. Churchill was a staunch anti-Communist. He knew, however, that Hitler and the NAZIs posed the mortal and immediate. He quipped, "If Hitler invaded hell I would make at least a favorable reference to the devil in the House of Commons." Churchill was an amateur tactician, but he got the big strategic issues correct. After the fall of France (June 1940) to defeat NAZI Germany and its powerful military, it would require the combined power of the Soviet Union and the United States. America would eventually join Britain, but the Soviets were more of a question. Stalin had negotiated a NAZI-Soviet alliance (August 1939). This allowed the two countries to launch World War by invading Poland (September 1939). This essentially gave Stalin control of much of Eastern Europe and recover areas of the Tsarist Empire lost after World War I. Thus it did not seem that a British alliance with he Soviets was likely. Churchill knew, however, that the NAZI-Soviet alliance was not stable. Both Hitler and Stalin had ulterior unresolveably, aggressive goals to dominate Europe. The question was when the alliance would break down. It would take a full year after France fell during which the Luftwaffe blitzed British cities. Hitler ultimately answered that question by launching the most massive invasion in history--Operation Barbarossa (June 1941).
Atlantic Charter (August 1941)
The Atlantic Charter is one of the key documents of the 20th century and remains still relevant today. President Roosevelt and Primeminister Churchill meet aboard the Prince of Wales on August 9-13, 1941 at Placentia Bay. The crux of the victory of the Wester democracies in World War II was the Atlantic Charter of August 1941. There was much in it that in fact Churchill objected to because of considerations over the Empire. At thge time, however, his primary concern was to draw America into the War. This was the first meeting between Churchill and Roosevelt since a brief encounter after World war I. The wartime relationship between Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt was perhaps the most important personal relationship in the 20th century. 【Alldritt】
Pearl Harbor (December 1941)
Churchill knew a lot about America, but emergency of the War blined him to the fact taht the President can not declare war. It required an act of Congress. President Roosevelt probably cild of rammed a declaration through Congress, but it would have resulted in a badly divided Congress and public, not a good foundation for a participation in the most terrifying war in history in which many Ameeuivans would inevitably be killed. Roosevelt took neruica about as far as he ould with out striong public support for war. He was hoping that German actions in the Atlantic would raduically shift pubklic opinion. Unlike World War I, U-boat attacks on American shipping did not ignite public outrage. American public opinion was shifting but only glacially. Rather the war incident came from the other side of the world--the Japanese attacked the Ameruican naval base at Pearl Harbor. As Presicent Roosevelt described it, 'a day that will live in infamy." Churchill learned of it while having dinner with the two most important Americans in Britain, Ambassador Gil Winant and Special Envoy Averell Harriman. Churchill immediately telephoned the President. They were finally all in it together. His major war-fighting objective nce becoming prime-minister had been achieved. In the space of 6 months the entire complexiion of the War had been imexorably altered. Britain and its Empire were no longer fighting the NAZIs alone. There was now animmrnse coalition of Britain, America and the Soviets. He later wrote, "Now at this very moment I knew that the United States was in the war, up to the neck and in to the death. So we had won after all! ... How long the war would last or in what fashion it would end no man could tell, nor did I at this moment care ... We should not be wiped out. Our history would not come to an end ... Hitler's fate was sealed. Mussolini's fate was sealed. As for the Japanese, they would be ground to a powder. All the rest was merely the proper application of overwhelming force. .... Being saturated and satiated with emotion and sensation, I went to bed and slept the sleep of the saved and thankful."
Sea Power
Winston Churchill had aonger and more intimate relationship with the Royal Navy than any other British official, although his training and experience had been with the Army. This included serving as First Sea Lord during part of both world wars and then in important poditions affecting the Royal Navy in various ways such as the buget as Chancellr of the Exchequer (1924-29). His record as a naval strategist has been a matter of some comtention, beginning with the failed Dardanelles campaign (1915). Here one has to separate the strategic vission and the conduct of the campaign. The effort to ger supplies to the Russians was more than justified the effort. Who is responsible for mismanaging the military effort is a different question, buteven here Churchill shared some of theesonsibility. And their were contrioversies in World War II as well, including Norway, the Battle of the Atlantic (1939-43), and the loss of Repuse and Prince of Wales in the Pacific (1941). Churchill's overall record shows him to have taken a pragmatic aprroach to naval power, although he unrealistically pushed for offensive operations". He seems to have met the Royal Navy's critical needs and protected its long-term interests. 【Bell】 Perhapds the most legitimate criticism of Churchill as a naval strategist was his commitment to the strategic bombing campaign. The resources devoted to Bomber Command might have beter served Britan in the early years of the War. This is an issue that military historians still wrestle with. A insightful synopsis of Churchill and the Royal Navy is rovided by one assessmnt, This is the story of one of he great love-affais of all ime, between Churchill, wgose ideas on seaoiwer were romantic and frequenly wrong, and a mixed bunch of sailors who had to put up wih them .... He brought to the Navy as he brought to Brtan as a whole all his energy, couage and immagination that drove men forard .... But he was obstinte, bullying and sometimes vindicative, faults which would havebeen less significant had his judgement of naval men not neen so often impaired ...." 【Stanhope】 But it as Churchill who saw clearly as France was falling that Britin was an island and wih the Royal Navy, the Germans would have trouble invading (May 1940).
Air Power
After Workd War I, military strategists adopted the idea that the 'bomber will always get through'. Curchill's training and miltary expeience was wih the Army before the airplane was invented. But he took an inteest in airpower form an early point beause of his active mind and interest in technolgy. He first got involved wiih air issues becaue as First Lord of Admiralty he had to wrestle wih the question as to wheter the Navy should have its own air service. Later as Minister of War and Air he came down heavily on the Navy side in the battleship or bomber debate. 【Roskill, p. 73.】 Then after the Dardenelles as an army combat commnder, he was on the receiving end of German air power. He dd not always see the air issues correctly. He was too often influenced by Lindemann on scientific issues, including opposition to radar. And he was a strong proponent of bombers in the 1930s when the inadequaces of Bomber Command was not fully understood. Despite all the debates in Parliament, Churchill did not have a good command of the air situation. It was Chamberlain who turned to fighters while Churchill was sill focused on bombers. Dowding had to hold him back as he promissed fighter squadrons to the French (May 1940). The British and Americans turned to technology to avoid the horrifying casualties of World War I. And the British saw Bomber Command as a kind of insurance that the Gernanms would bever launch another War. Only BomberCommand proved touhless in the early months of the War. Not only were Bomber Commnd's slw and had small paylads, the air crews had to fly at nght to avoid German fighters and had difficulty even iding cities, let alne targets in those cties. But the Royal Air Force (RAF) was still the only way of htting the Reich. The Royal Navy had no way of reaching the Reich. And the German Army proved even stronger han it had been in World War I. The British tunned to the RAF after the fall of France, because it was the only service that could strike at the Germans. And huge resourceswre devoed to building planes hat could ch the Reich. If the British had any noral quams about strategc bombing, they wre sept away by the VAZI Blts (1940-41). This was why the Royal Air Force was given more resources than the other services. About half of the British war economy was directed to the RAF. It was not until Bomber Command got the Lancaster that the British had a plane that could effectivly bomb the Reich (1942).
Critics
Churchill as a war leader is not without his critics. His critics point to Norway and Greece, but both can be debated. There is no doubt that Churchill's strategic vision about Norway n 1940 was correct. Who is responsible for the military inptitude in carrying it out is a different matter. Many of these decissions were enthusiastically supported by the military as was is obsession with the eastern Mediterranean, the not so soft 'soft under-belly of the AXIS'. World War II was an emense undertaking. Any major war leader mase both right and wrong decissions. In fact Churchill was right much more than he was wrong. The decission to keep fighting in 1940 alone would rank Churchill as a key archetect of victory. There was, however, much more. He did not accept the generals' judgement that Russia would fall in 1941 or that American involvement would not fundamentally alter the course of the War.
North Africa (1940-43)
Italy launched War in the Western Desert by invading Egypt from Libya with aubstantial force (September 1940). Britain at the time was bracing for a German Cross-Channel Ivasion and was just beginning to requip the Army that had been saved at Dunkirk (May 1940). Asa reslt the Western Desert Force was very small. Even so, an offensive smashed the Ilantians ad drive them back into Libya. What followed was abacka nd forth campaign after Hitler dispached Erwin Rommel to save he Italans (February 1941). The Bitosh firce was weakened when Churchill dispatched troops in a failed wffort to assist Greece (April 1941). The British were hampered by iferiot tanks, The M-3 Grants was rushd intoproduction and while a poor design finally gave the British a powerrful main gun. Rommel's tactical brillance led the Afrika Korps to the gates of Suez at El Alemaein, but here the British held. The British postion was bolstered by huge quanaties of American supplies and equipment including the new M-4 Sherman tank. The jaoanese carrier attack on Pearl Harbor brought Amerca into the War (December 1941). Within days of Pearl Harbor, British and American military planners met at the Arcadia Conference inWashingon, D.C. to formulate Alled strategy. The principle of Europe first to Britain's relief was quickly agreed upon. American entry into the War opened up new possibilities for the hard-pressed British. The British and Americans had, however, different views on where to strike. The Americans proposed an immediayte cross-Channel in France-- Operation Sledgehammer. Te British were agast, understanding the power of the Wehrmacht and the fact that the American Army had n experiece and still lmited maen abd resources. The British pressed for a much less ambitious plan. They understood that the expansion and training of the American Army would take time and that te shipping for a massive invasion foce did not yet exist. Churchill's answer was North Africa. 【Pack, pp. 17–22.】 The American chiefs, both General Marshall and Admiral King opposed a North African plan andthreaten to to abandon the Germany first strategy. Marshall and King in may ways were the archetects of the Ameican vidtory in World War II. King may have ad ulteriot motives, but we find it astonishing tht he could have seen aa landing in Frane and engaging the Wegrmacht at the peak of its strength was feasible in 1942. Churchill fortunately has rushed to Washinton after Pearl Harbor and was enconsed at the White House. While Mrs. Roosevelt was not entirely happy with the arangements, Churchill and Rosevelt struck up a close bond. Roosevelt was firmly set on getting American forces in action somewhere. This was both for domestic morale and the need to support the enbattled Red Army in the all-important Ostkrieg. 【Mackenzie, pp. 54–55.】 Churchill convinced him that it should be North Africa. We are not entirely sure what arguments won him over, but it was clearly the right decsion. The green American Army was not yet prepared to go toe-to-toe with the Weftrmachy as was prove by te amateruish landings (November 1942) and at Kassaerrine (February 1943). North Africa provided a battleround on the perifery of the NAZI Empire German power where untested and poorly trained trops could learn to fight the vauned German Army. Roosevelt generally deferred to his miltary commanders, but in this case he ordered them to plan with the British a North-African ivasion -- Opeation Torch. 【Pack, pp. 17–22.】 Torch would coincide with Montgomery's El Alemein Offensive (October 1942) and unexpectedly the Soviet Salingrad offensive (Nvember 1942). A virtually unknwn newly minted Lt. General Eisenhower was appointed as Commander in Chief Allied expeditionary Force and he establihed his headquarters in London (August 1942). 【Morison, p. 180.】 The Allies including he Soviets suffered huge defeats in 1942. At times the outcme of te War was in doubt, but the year ended wh a decided turnng of the tide. Churchill remarked, "Before Alamein we never had a victory. After Alamein we never had a defeat"
Ultra
Churchill throughout the War promoted technology such as in air defense and the cracking of Ultra at Bletchley Park. 【Cohen】 Ultra was to play a major role in both North Africa and the even more critical defeat of the U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic.
The Holocaust
Winston Churchill had a strong feeling of sympathy for the Jewish people. There was none of the polite anti-Semitism that dominated so muh of upper-class society. Churchill's sympathy towards Jews seems to have stemmed from his love of history. There was a a blend of understanding of Jewish history and his broader opposition to tyranny and persecution. He saw quite righly that Jewish history was central to Western civilization, recognizing their contribution to ethics and culture and the very creation of Christianity. Churchill as Colonial Secretary had to contend wih Arab rioting in Palestine after Wold War I. One outcome of the effort to restore order was the White Paper issued by Churchill (June 1922). The Haycraft Commission investigated the violence and found, "The racial strife was begun by the Arabs, and rapidly developed into a conflict of great violence between Arabs and Jews, in which the Arab majority, who were generally the aggressors, inflicted most of the casualties." . Churchill was a strong proponent of the Balfour Doctrine. He spoke with French President Alexandre Millerand who was critical of British support for a Jewish national homeland, fearing it would 'disturb' the Arab world. Churchill continued to support the commiment and was impressed with Sir Herbert Samuel who was appointed High Commissioner and althouhn Jewish pursued an even-handed approach. Churchill's vision for the World War I mandates was that Emir Feisal would be the king of Iraq and Abdullah the king of Trans Jordan. The remaining area of western Palestine between the Jordan River and Mediterranran would be the Jewish national homeland as promised by the World War I Balfour Declaration. [Gilbert, pp. 46-47.] He was perhapsthe first important tindividual to realize that the Germans had lunced the still unnamed Holocaust becuse of Enigmadeccrupts. German Eibsatzgruppen were sending daily reports of killings with toals for men, woimen, and children. His reaction was a mix of condemnation and impotence as Britain had no way od preventing the killing which was done mostly deep in Eastern Europe (1941-43). This led to a focus on defeating NAZI Germany as the primary means of saving Jewish lives. like President Rooevelt he expoed the Germn murder operations, describing the atrocities as 'the most horrible crime ever committed' (1941). His commnted in Prlimemt even at the risk of exposinge the Ultra Secret. (He Germans took note and tightened their security protocols.) Churchill called for the punishment of those responsible, including those who merely obeyed orders. While he supported Jewish immigration to Palestine and opposed policies limiting Jewish immigration, he believed that the best way to help Jews was to defeat Nazi Germany.
Casablanca (1943)
The Alles experienbced terrible defeats in 1942.. It was still not clear who was hgoing to win the War,. Midway stemmed he Japanese advance in the Pacificic (June 1942). But it was no unil the end of the year that the Germans sustained unrecoverable losses. Thus began with El Alemen in North Africa (Octobr 1942 and then first the orch landings in Nrth Africa (November 1943) and then Opation Uranus isolating he Geman Sixth Army in Stalingrad (November 1943). By the time Churchill and Roosevelt met in Casablanca it was clear that the NAZIs were not gong to win the War, but not yet what it was going require to secure the victoy. America's entry into he War, imeaurably increased the power that could be directed at he Germans in the West. But it also changed Churchill's role. He no longer controlled war policy. He now had to share deison makng weith Roosevelt. And given the power relationship of the two cuntries, he would be the junior partner. This was clear when the President nnounced unconditional surrender as theAllied goal wihout clearing it with Churhill.
Tehran (1943)
Tehran was the first meeting of the Big Three. Churchil had met Stlin before, but no Roosevelt. Stalin refused to leave the Soviet Union. This forced Roosevelt whose health was begnnng to decine to make a long, arduous journey. Churchill was still focusse on opeartions in the Mediterranean. He ha severe doubts about Overlod, especally possible casuaties. The Americans were refusing more delays. He was hoping that Stalin would support him. Stalin did not. It was agreed Overlord would occur by May 1944. Stalin agreed to support it by launching a major offensive on the Eastern front to divert German forces from northern France. Churchill hoped for a united Anglo-American approch. Roosevelt decided to try to score poits with Stslin by not entirely agree with Churchill. Churchill was personlly hurt as he cosidered Rooevelt to be a prsonal friend. Stalin proposed executing 50,000–100,000 German officers so that Germany could not plan another war. Roosevelt ttemptimg to defuse the situton an contered by pretendin that Stalin was not serious, He joked that 'maybe 49,000 would be enough'. Churchill understood , however, that Stalin was seious. It was nowknown that Stalin had odered some 40,000 Polish oficers shot. Churchill was outraged and denounced 'the cold-blooded execution of soldiers who fought for their country'. He insisted that only war criminals should be put on trial in accordance with the Moscow Document, which he had written. Chuchill stormed out of the room, but was brought back in by Stalin who insisted that he was only joking. Churchill was glad Stalin had relented, but was sure that Stalin was testing him and Rooevelt.
D-Day (1944)
Churchill like many of his generals thought it too risky. The British feared that the Americans having not faced the Wehrmacht in battle, understimated the German capabilities which was absolutely correct. Churchill even raised the issue at Tehran (November 1943), hoping that Stalin would back him. Stalin of course was all for it. It is very likely that an invasion even in 43would have failed. The NAZIs wold have still probablybeen defeated in the end, but it would have had disastrous comnsequences for the future of post-war Europe. 【Luckacs】 Churchill and the British haves to be credited with disuading the Americans from lauching an invasion of France in 1942 and even 43. The Allies were not yet ready for it. Torch had made the Cross Channel invasion impossible in 1943. There was, however, no holding the Americans back or explaining furthr delsys to Stalin. Churchill became a reluctant particuoanr. Here he was a strong supporter of technological sollutions, such as Mullberry. D-Day was sucessful primarily because of Allied air superiority--only achieved in eraly 1944 a few months before D-Day.
Yalta (1945)
Potsdam
Sources
Gilbert, Martin. Churchill and the Jews: A Life Long Frienship Goodwin, Doris Kearns. No Ordinary Time: Frranklin and Eleanor Roosevelt: The Home Front in World War II (Simon & Schuster: New York, 1994), 759p.
Mackenzie, S.P. The Second World War in Europe Second Edition. (Routledge: 2014).
Meacham, Jon. Franklin and Winston (Random House, 2003).
Morison, Samuel Eliot (1947). Operations in North African Waters, October 1942-June 1943 in (History of United States Naval Operations in World War II), Volume 2) (London: 1947).
Pack, S.W.C. Invasion North Africa, 1942 (New York: Scribner, 1978)..
Roskill, Stephen. Churchill and the Admirals (William Morrow and Company: New Yorl, 1978), 351p.
Schlesinger, Arthur Jr. "The Supreme Partnership," The Atlantic Monthly (October 1984).
Stanhope, Henry. The Times (1978).
Trapani, Carol, "Letters cemented partnership," Poughkeepsie Journal (December 8, 2001).
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