Figure 1.--The Second Arab Siege of Constantinople (717-18), virtually unrecognized in modern histories, is one of the most important battles of history. It was a huge land and sea offensive by the powerful Umayyad Caliphate to destroy the Byzantine Empire by seizing Constantinople. As was the case fir a millennium, the Great Walls of Coinstaninople held and major naval victories destroyed Arab fleets. The Caliphate's failure had far-reaching consequences. It ensured the survival of Byzantium. The Caliphate's strategic outlook was fundamentally changed. Attacks on Byzantine territories continued, but the effort to conquer Bzantium ended. As a result the Byzantine Empire would continue to shield European Christendom from Muslim advnces for seven centuries.

The 4th Century

We are mostly aware of developments in the West, largely because Byzantium protected Western Chrisendom from eastern invaders. Here the primary threat was Persia. The Sassanid Empire (Neo-Persian Empire) was the last Persian imperial dynasty before the Muslim conquest (mid seventh century), It was founded by Sasan (224 AD) was the last Persian dynasty before the Muslim conquest. The Sasanians succeeded the Parthian Empire, and reestablished Persia as a superpower in late antiquity. The Roman Empire thus had to contend with the Sassanids in the East. And as Byzantiyum emerged it was the Eastern Empire that faced this challenge. Byzantium was also involved in wars in the west as part of the Roman Empire during the 4th century AD. Byzantium was a tiny, nondescript fishing village when Constantine the Great moved the capital of the Roman Empirefrom Rome (330 AD). He renamaed it Constantinople. Constantine legalized Christianity, which previous emperors had persecuted to varying degrees. Christianity would become a major element of Byzantine culture. Constantinople would become one of the two great centers of Christinaity. It became the largest city in the empire, eclpsing Rome. And while Rome declined, Constaninople became a vibrant commercial center. Constantine seriously weakened the West during his reign. He favored the East in building infrastructue. His governance also favored the East. He raised taxes in the West to levels more in line with the East. This was done despite the economic disparities between the two the West anf East. Raising taxes in the West had serious consequences. The ecvonomy was already crippled by by constant wars and invasion which was affecting trade. The Empire was split again in 395 AD upon the death of Theodosius I, Roman Emperor in Constantinople. The Empire would never again be united. Theidocius divided the Empire eastern and western provinces as was done Diocletian’s tetrarchy more than a century earlier. His two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, became the Easterna and Western emperors. The Eastern Emopire was the wealthier of the two. And behind the massive walls of Constantinople, the most secure of the two. The Western Roman Empire received the brint of the barbarian invasions, Huns, Goths and Vandals. Theny penetrated into the Balkans, but unsuccessfully attacked Constzntinople and did not move further est into Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. The Western Empire drew back.

The 5th Century

In the 5th century the first major adversary from the beginning was Sassanid Persia. Military reverses forced the Western Empire to retreat from the former borders. Provinces were left to fend for themselves. The Legions were withdrawn from Britain (404 AD??). Britain was exposed to assault by Germanic tribes like the Angels, Jutes, and Saxons. Italy were conquered by the Ostrogoths, Spain was conquered by the Visigoths, North Africa was conquered by the Vandals, and Gaul was conquered by the Franks). And all the while, the Eastern Empire thrived. Constantinople became the largest city in the empire and a major commercial center. In 476 CE, the last Western Roman Emperor was deposed and the Western Roman Empire was no more. Thus the Eastern Roman Empire was the only Roman Empire left standing. With the fall of Rome (476) we can begin to talk about Byzantine wars. The Empire participated in over a thousand wars of varying inntensity during the millennium that it existed. A major advantage of the Byzantines for centuries was its tactical and strategic organizational advantage. [Haldon] The Empire was able to form armies swiftly and easily support them on the field. ThByzantine soldiers tended to be more disciplined, better trainined, and more skilled. The Byzantine–Sasanian War (572–91) was another of the many wars fought between the two empires. This one was triggered in part by pro-Byzantine revolts in areas of the Christian Caucasus under Persian rule. This time the war was mostly fought in the southern Caucasus and Mesopotamia, although there was some fighting in eastern Anatolia, Syria, and northern Iran. Like the other wars, it was mostly fought in border provinces and neither emire achieved any permanent major gains.

The 6th Century

In the 6th century wars continued with Sassanid Persia. The Anastasian War was the first major war betweern the two empires since 440 (502-06). The Byzantines intervened in the Visigothic Civil War. Justinian the Great (527-65) dreamed of recreating the Roman Empire. And he reived the fortunanes of the Eastern Empire, lmost reuniting with the former western provinces. His forces conquered North Africa, Spain, Rome and most of the rest Italy. It was Justinian who built the awe inspiring Hagia Sophia, the center of Eastern Christianity. Justinian systematized the old Roman legal code which would serve as the basis for law in the Byzantine Empire. Justinian was almost driven from Constantinole by the Nika riots. Enraged angry racing fans, already alienated byr rising taxes, rose up against Justinian for arresting two popular charioteers and tried to depose him (532). His wive Theodosia convinced him to stay in the city and supress the rioters. Justinian then began his military camppaigns. The short-lived Vandal Kingdom was centered in Carthage. It was the target of Justinian I's wars of reconquest of the lost Western Roman Empire. It was conquered by Justinian's great commander, Belisarius, in the Vandalic War and incorporated into the Byzantine Empire, albeit at considerable cost. The new Byantine province had to contend with Moorish attacks (Moorish Wars) and military rebellions. As a result, Byzantine cintrol was not firmly in place for some time (548). Next came the Gothic War, a extended overlnad campaign (535-54). Justinian the attacked the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy. Justinian captured the Italian peninsula, Dalmatia, Sardinia, Sicily and Corsica. Justinians conquests were adversely affected by a deadly plague which reduced the Byzantine population and sapped its military strength. (541) There was a Gothic revival under Totil (540-53). It was finally supressed after a long , brusing struggle by the Byzantine general Narses. He also had to repell an invasion by the Franks and Alamanni (554). Justinian promulgated the Pragmatic sanction (554). This established Italy's new government. Several cities in northern Italy held out against the Byzantines (until 562). Italy was devestaed by the Gothic War and areas depopulated. The Byzantines after Just=inian were left incapable of resisting an invasion from the North, this time by the Lombards (568). The Byzantines permanently lost control of any large area of Italy. Justinian's hopes to reconstitute the Roman Empire were ended when the plague struck (541). It did not destroy the Empire, but affected the strength of the Empire and ability to wage war. More fighting ocuured in the Balkans with the Avars abn Slavs.

The 7th century

The Byzantines fought their final, longest and most devasting war with the Persians (602-28). There had been a long series of thesecwars. The previous war had ended after Emperor Maurice helped Sasanian king Khosrow II regain his throne (591). Emperor Maurice was murdered by his rival Phocas (602). Incidents like this helped create the modern adetice, Byzantine. King Khosrow declared war on Phocas and the Byzantune Empire. His justifucation was obstensibly to to avenge the assaination of his ally, the deposed emperor Maurice. The result was a nearly two decde, bruising struugle. This was no border war, but was fought throughout the Middle East. Figting occurred in Egypt, the Levant, Mesopotamia, the Caucasus, Anatolia, Armenia, and at the very walls of Constantinople itself. Therec were also naval engagements, primarily in the Argean. The Persians overwhealmed the Byzantunes at dominated the struggle for over two decades, conquering much of the Levant, Egypt, Aegean Sea, and parts of Anatolia. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius rose to the thronbe (610). He inexperinced further reverses, but gradually stabilized siuation. Then Heraclius' campaigns stopped the Persians advances (622-26). Byzantines forces drove into Persian lands. The Persians made alliances with the Avars and Slavs in the West. The Persians made their attempt to braeach the Great Walls of Constantinople (626) They not only failed, but suffered a significant defeat. The Byzantines negotiated an alliannce with the Turks (627). The Byzantine army under Heraclius invaded the Persian heartland. Partly as a result, a civil war erupted. The Persians killed their king and made peace. The Byzantines had won, but the war had drained both empires of men and resources. The Byzantines regained lost territory, but very little had been received and both they and the Persians had been seriously weakened. This left them vulnerable at the point in time that Arab warriors fired with the flame of Islam ermerged from Arabia. The Islamic Rashidun Caliphate invaded both empires only a few years after the Byzantines and Persina made peace. The Arab armies rapidly conquered the entire Sasanian Empire. The Byzantines lost territories in the Levant, the Caucasus, Egypt, and North Africa, but held on to Conatantinople, Anatolia, and areas of the Balkans. While a series of wars would follow, the Arabs never suceeded in reducing the Byzantine Empire. The Avars layed seige to Constantinople, but could not breach the Great Walls. The Wars with he Islamicized Arabs began with stunning defeats on various fronts as the yBzantines were driven back into Anatoilia. Byzantium's efforts to centalize rule and supress divergent Christian churches played a role in the success of Arab armies. From that point as the Eastern Empire evolved into the Byzantine Empire, the Empire was fighting for its life and ceased to play a major role in medieval Europe, although it did have an important non-military role with the Rus in the Ukraine. Campaigns against the Slavs were fouught in the Balkans.

The 8th Centuty

The primary military challenges to Byzantium in the 8th century were the Bulgars and the Arabs. A war was lost to the Bulgars. Justinian II had sought to break the power of the urban aristocracy. He increased taxation and appointed 'outsiders' to government posts. This made him unpopular and he was driven from power (695). He found refuge first with the Khazars and then with the Bulgars. He returned to Constantinople with the armies of Bulgarian Khan Tervel and seized histhrone back (705). He proceeded to launch a reign of terror against his enemies who had displaced him. He was overthrow again by the urban aristocracy (711). This ended the Heraclian dynasty and the beginning of the Isaurian dynasty. There was almost constant war with the Arabs. The Isaurians were faced with the second Arab Second Arab Siege of Constantinople occurred. The powerful Umayyad Caliphate launched the Second Siege of Constantinople (717)) which lasted an entire year. Emperor Leo III managed to save the city and empire. Leo's military genius was not the only factor. Also involved was Greek Fire, a cold winter (717–718), and Leo's skill in negotiating an allisnce Bulgarian Khan Tervel. This is one of the most imprtant battles of history even though it receives very little attention in European histories. It permanently altered the Caliphates strategic outlook. The Caliphate continued to attack Byzantium's borders, but never again struck directly at Constaniople. This would shield Western Christendom for seven centuries. After his victory, Leo began reorganising and consolidating. The result was two decades later was another major victory over the Umayyad army in the Battle of Akroinon (740). Leo's son, Constantine V, won victories against the Umayyads in northern Syria (meaning the Roman province, nit the modern country). He also undermined Bulgarian strength in the Balkans. Constantine followed up his victory in Syria with a major offensive (746). He understood that the Umayyad Caliphate under Marwan II was disentgrating. Constantine captured Germanikeia (present-day Maraş in southern Turkey). There was also a naval dimension to the Byantine Arab wars. The Bzantine fllet decisivelky defeated the Umayyad fleet at the Battle of Keramaia resulted. These an other defeats as well as internal instability forced the Umayyad Caliphate to change its efforts at militry expansion. Conflict with the Byzantines did not end, but now became norder incursions rather than an effort to destroy the Empire. It needs to be mentiones that while all thse battles were going on, Byzantine society was dominated by religious controversy. The Byzantines were divided over Iconoclasm -- the main political issue. Icons mean religious imagery in art. Icons were were banned by both Leo and Constantine (beginning about 730). This led to to revolts by the Iconodules (icon supporters) throughout the empire. The Empress Irene sought to repair the damage and division in Byzantine society. The Second Council of Nicaea met in 787 and decided thst icons could be venerated but not worshipped (787) Irene is believed to have attempted to arrange a marriage between herself and Charlemagne, which would have united Christendomm. The effort was complicated by Aetios, one of her favourites. [Theophanes the Confessor in Cameron.]

The 9th Century

There were more wars fought with the Aeabs and Bulgars in the 9th century. Sicily was lost, the largdest and most importannt Mediterranean island. Iconooclasm continued to divide Byzantine society. Empoeror Leo V reintroduced official iconoclasm. Finally Empress Theodora restored the veneration of icons (843). Shhe was assisted by Patriarch Methodios. [Parry, pp. 11–15.] The Iconoclasm controvery may seem to be a meaningless theological matter. Inn fact, it had very real military and security ramoficatiins. Iconoclasm was a factor in the increasing alienation of East from West. And this only worsened as a result of the Photian schism. Pope Nicholas I challenged the elevation of Photios to the patriarchate. [Cameron, p. 267.] This was important because it meant that there was no unified resistance to Muslim attacks, one of the two primary security threat to Christian Europe. The otherr was the Vikings in the north. This primarily was a threat to Western Chrisendom, but would eventially threaten Byzantium in the form of the Rus. Emperor Basil I rose to the throne (867). This was the beginning of the Macedonian dynasty, which would rule Byzantium for two and a half centuries.

The 10th Century

The Macedonian dynasty included some of the most able of Byzantium's emperors. As a resuilt, their rule is one of revival and resurgence. The Empire shifted from defending against fireign invasions to the reconquest of lost territories. There was also a cultural revival in spheres such as philosophy and the arts. The Macedonian emperors made a real effort to restore the brilliance of the Empire before the Bulgar/Slavic and Arab invasions. Many historians call this the Golden Age of Byzantium. The Empire was substantislly smaller than that achieved during Justinian rule. The Macedonian emperors oversaw increasing strength. An importabn fsctor was that the remaining territories were more geographically concentrated and meant that the populstion more politically, economically, and culturally integrated. Crete is recaptured. There was continued conflict with Arabs and Bulgars. And a new threat appeared -- the Rus. The Rus were Viking (Scandanavians primarily from what is now Sweden), merchant-warriors who moved south along the great Eastern European rivers where they helped found a medieval federation in the territory of modern Belarus, Ukraine and western Russia--a loose federation of principalities known as the Kievan Rus. The both trades and raided Constantinoople fom Black Sea ports. The greatest of the Macedionian emperors was Bazil II (r. 976-1075). He was a military commanddr of the first order. He rose to the throne still a teenager and suffered a stinging defeat at the the hands of Bugarian Tsar Sammuel-- Battle of the Gates of Trajan (986). He then rebuilt his army and began a brutal decades long war against the Bukgars. Basil was distracted for a time by his many domestic and foreign adversries.

The 11th Century

In the 11th century wars continued with the Bulgars and Arabs. Finally after the turn of the 11th century, Basil was able to focus on Tsar Sammuelmand the Bulgarians. After a series of victories gained by abke Byzantuine gebnerals, Basil gained a decisive victiry at Kleidion (1014). He became knoiwn as the Bulgar Slayer. This gave Byzantium control of the Balkans once again. The Bzantines were also confronted by Arab piracy. There was another Rus attack. The first conflict with the Seljuk Turks. Centuries of political and theological differences widened the gap between the Westerntern and Eastern churches. A widening gap began in the 5th century. Finally Pope Leo IX excomunicated Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius (1054). This resulted in the Great Schism which split the main faction of Christianity into two divisions, Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox, permanently altering Christianity and the European political landscape (1054). Today, they remain the two largest denominations of Christianity. Another Rus attack occured The Normans enter Italy and several conflicts occur. At the end of the 11th century, Western Chrisendom launched the Crusades (1095). Until this point, the Byzantine Empire had been fendung off Islamic invasions with no help fropm the West. The Seijuk Turks began msking substantial advnces in Byjantine territory. The loss of Anatolia began at the battle of Manzkiert (1071). Emperor Alexius I appealed to the West for help. What followed was the First Crusade, a 'holy war' declared by Pope Urban II in Clermont, France. The First Crusademoved through Byzantium. d.

The 12th Century

Christian armies from France, Germany and Italy as part of the First Crusade moved into Byzantium. Emperor Alexius tried to convince their commanders to swear an oath of loyalty to him. Hewanted to guarantee that land retasken from the Turks would be restored to the Byzantine Empire. Western and Byzantine forces recaptured Nicaea in Anatolkia from the Turks. , Alexius at this point retreated. The Western Crusaders accuseds him of betrayal.. There is contihued war with the Skejuk Turks followed. . War was fought with Venice which raided the Greek coast. War were fought with Hungary and Romania. A Serbian revolt was supressed. The Italian expedition is defeated. The Bulgarian Empire is reestablished. It was in the 12th century that the advantages that the Byzantines had for years in organizatioin began to break down. [Haldon]

The 13th Century

It was the Byzantines who asked for Western aid from western Chtistendom. From the beginning there were dusputes and issues made worse by the widentuing rift between Western and Eastern Chtistendom. Throughout the Crusades, animosity built between Byzantium and the West. The Byzantinr Emperor who is head of the Church comes to see gthe Crusades as a paoal effort to destroy the Eastern Church. This culminated in the conquest and looting of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade (1204). This hardened the split in Christianity. Another war with the Bulgars. A war was fought in Albania. A naval war is fought wuth Venice, mostly in the Aegean Sea.

The 14th Century

In the 14th century the wars with the Turks continue, now with the Ottomans. And more wars with the Bulgars. Bzyzantuiumn experienced a civil war, an all too common occurance in Byzantium. The Ottomans made major advances in Anatolia. The last major war with the Bulgars was fought. The Serbs advance in the Balkans. A war is fought wuith Genoa and more civil wars occur.

The 15th Century

In the 15th century there is an unsuceesful Ottoman seige of Constantinople. The Great Walls were finally breached by Mehmed II and his cannons (1453). Notably the cannons were the work of an Hungarian canon master. The Ottoman Army was impressive, more important, however, was the developing techhnology in the West that bhelped make Mehmed's cannons.

Sources

Cameron, Averil Οι Βυζαντινοί in Greek (Athens: Psychogios, 2009).

Haldon, John. The Byzantine Wars.

Parry, Kenneth (1996). Depicting the Word: Byzantine Iconophile Thought of the Eighth and Ninth Centuries. (Leiden and New York: Brill, 1996).

Theophanes the Confessor in Cameron, Averil Οι Βυζαντινοί in Greek (Athens: Psychogios, 2009).

Created: 4:36 AM 12/25/2020
Last updated: 4:48 PM 1/24/2021