Figure 1.--The highly miltarized and weaponozed Scandanavian sciety and the mobility ofthe longboars gave the Viking raiding parties a huge advantage over the kargely unprotected monastic communities and coastal communities they targeted. The monastic communities coastal communities had little or no local defense forces. European Feudal lords did not want a weapobized society. Not only was that expensive, but if you arms the peasants, they might use those arms aganst you. Rather Feudal lords wanted an unarmed peasantry that could be controlled by a small number of highly trained, well-armed retainers. Nor did the Feudal lords have the ability to rapidly move forces to defend comminities attacked. Viking graves inecontrast suggest a very highly weaonized society. This image from the popular TV seriess, 'The Vikings',seems a reasonably accurate depiction.

Perhaps the most commonly asked question about the Vikings is why did this relatively isolated, quiet coner of Europe uddenly burst out of Scandanavia with such incrdible violence and have such a major impact on European history. Many explanations have been offered, many related. The anser as so often is the case, was surely a combination of factors. What is hard to assess is the relative importance of the various factors. Climate change appears to be at th heart of changes in Scandnavia society, but not in driving people out of Scandavia. Other factors include climate, demographics, ecomomics, historical developments, political organization, and other factors. We have some facts to consider these factors, but much that follows is specuation. The core development that seems to have driven the transformation of Scandanavia from a quiet agricultural society to an aggressive militaristic society seems to have been a climatic even. The process appears to have begun with volcano eruptions (Rabaul or Krakatoa) or meteaor/comet impacts (535-36). Whatever the cause, vasts clouds of dust affected agriculture, the primary source of wealth at the time. Now there is no solid evidence as to what causedthis climatic event, but there is solid evidence that it occurred, incliding tree rinds, ice cores, and contemprary reports. Now in most regions this affeted crop yields, but in Scandanavia where farmers were operating at northern-most limit of cultivation, there coud be complete crop failures. There was starvation, death, and social upheaval. Studies report than 75 percent of the villages in some areas were abandoned. There was also fundamental changes in Scandanavia society. Gradually the climate began to warm and the population started to recover, but it was a very different Scandanavia.

Climatic Event (535-36)

The core development that seems to have driven the transformation of Scandanavia from a quiet agricultural society to an aggressive militaristic society seems to have been a climatic even. The process appears to have begun with volcano eruptions (Rabaul or Krakatoa) or meteor/comet impacts (535-36). Whatever the cause, vasts clouds of dust darkened the sun, extending both cold and darkness. This of course affected agriculture, the primary source of wealth at the time. For some 15 years temperatures plummeted. Now there is no solid evidence as to what caused this climatic event, but there is solid evidence that it occurred, incliding tree rings, ice cores, and contemprary reports. One author attributes the terrible times to one of the fearful myths of mankind--the Norse legend of Ragnarök which escribes the end of creation and an apocolyptic final battle in which all humans, animals, plants as well as the gods and other supernatural beings perish. [Pringle, p. 39.] The Fimbulwinter of Ragnarök sounds very much like whay the world and Scandanavia eperienced in 536. This development is very important in understanding subsequent Scadanavian history and the Viking outburst. It is also instructive in the modern global warming debate, showing the power of nature to affect climate change and the danger of climate warriors assuming all change is athroprogenic.

Impact on Scandanavia

Now in most regions these dust clouds this affeted yields, but in Scandanavia where farmers were operating at northern-most limit of cultivation, there coud be complete crop failures. There was starvation, death, and social upheaval. Studies report than 75 percent of the villages in some areas such as Sweeden's Uppland region were abandoned. Apparently villgers perished because of starvation on fighting. [Pringle, p. 39.] There was also fundamental changes in Scandanavia society. Scadanavia was in trmoil. Historians estimae that some 35 warlords organized petty kingdoms throughout Scandanavia. There are of course no written records, but archeologists gave found evidence to sugget violence and warfare. Hill forts and densive structures appeared all over the region. This strongly suggests the rise of attacks and warfare and the need of communities to defend themselves. The same methods have been used to assess trends in other widely separated ancient Sumer im Mesopotami or the the roughly contemporary Maya in Mesoamerica. Leaders assembled heavily armed war bands and fought over abandoned territory. A new milarized and higly weaponized society began to develop in Scandanavia. Grave evidence even on Gotland speak of violent times. It may be that because of the northerly location, the climatic impact was more draconian than elsewhere in Europe. This may have caused a more great shift toward militarization than in other regions. Gradually the climate began to warm and the population started to recover, but it was a very different Scandanavia.

Outburst Drivers

There are several theories as to what caused the Viking outburst from Scandavia at the end of the 8th century. Many historians have addressed this question and thus we have a very good idea at what was behind this starteling development. Factors such as climate, demograohics, ecomomics, historical developments, military balance, political organization, technology, and other factors have been considered. But because we are talking about the 8th and 9th centuries, the historical records are sparse. Thus the historians are left with interpreting the limited available information. Thus the assessment is by mo means definitive. We know many of the factors at play, but are not at all sure about just how they played out. Some make more sense than others. But the outburst was surely caused by a combination of these various factors.

Climatology

The Viking era roughly coincided with the Medieval Warm Period (800–1300) and ended roughly the same time and had largely ended about the aame time that the Little Ice Age (1250–1850) began. We are not sure at this time how this could have affected the Vikings. The Medieval Warm Period woud have benefitted agriculture which was the major producer of wealth at the time. Perhaps it made for more benigh sea faring conditions. But here we are still trying to assess the impact.

Demograhics

Some historians report that Scandinavia experienced a population boom (8th century). One author describes a 'bulge' of landlss young men. [Barrett, p. 671.] Scandanavia is not a righ gricultural area. It is at the northern climatic limits of agriculture which affects both crops and yields. The vavailable land was limited. Agriculture was only feasible in the southern areas of Scandavia. That limited the available land. There was just not enough prodyctve farm land availavle for the expanding population. [Ferguson, p. 45.] This mean that substantial numbers of Scandinavians that were living in a militarized society found themselves without land, status, or prospects. Many of the landless men had substantial military skills. And as Scandanavia became more connected with the wider world, they begin to learn about rich pickings beyond the Baltic that were there for the taking. Not only were nearby socities welthy, but most were largely unprotected. And some of thse wealthy socities were located very close to Scandanavia. [Fletcher, p. 177.] Not only was there the alure of trasure, but it also meant the likihood of marriage and their own home. [Barrett, p. 678.]

Economics

Economic factors overlap with demographics. But there is more involved. The 8th century is generally considered to be part of the Dark Ages that begam with the fall of the Roman Empire (5th century), but it was when the Fark Ages began to end and the European ecnomy began to revive. There was an increase in both trafe and urbanism meaning the expansion of wealth. This process was even more advanced in the Islamic Caliphate. The Islamic world extended from the Iberiam Peminsula into the Near East. One impactwas to expand trade routes and wealth into northern areas which had been realtively untouched by the outside world. [Ferguson, p. 48.] The Romans had not even known of the northern German tribes who became the Vilings. d its trade routes, and the wealth which moved along them was pushed further and further north. We begin to see what historians call proto-Urban centers in Western Europe. towns like London and Paris begin to become increasingly important trading centers. The expanding wealth of Europe lunedthe Sabdaavians into Europe, frst as traders and ultimateky as Vikig raiders. Some authors ses see a 'Long Eighth Century' of prosperous expandion. [Hansen and Wickham.] The connection of the Scandinavians to trade networks which exposed them to the larger richer societies of nearby Western Europe and eventually the rest of Europe and even parts of Islamic North Africa and the Middle East. Archeologist have found Viking treasure hords (Cuerdale Hoard and the Vale of York Hoard) with silver coins showing just how connected Scandanavia had become.

Historical trends

Historians have noted that the Viking sack of famed Lindisfarne momastary (793), often used as the start of the Viking Age, coincided with Charlemagne's Saxon Wars. This was awar of expansion and christinization of the Saxons. The Anglo-Saxons in Britain had been Chritianized, but the Saxons in Central Europe were still pagan. Several historians theorize that the Viking attacks may have been related to the spread of Christianity among pagan peoples which along with expanding trade routes had begun to reach Scandanavia. One historian writes that Dumézil theorise that "... it is not a coincidence if the early Viking activity occurred during the reign of Charlemagne". [Simek] The Saxons of course were far away from Scandanavia, but Christianity was spreading. And had begun to read Scandavia. Abd it would create divisions among the Norse as important leaders ved for control. This in partiular was involved in the conflict between Danish and Norwegian leaders. The Norse would eventually accept Christianity, but at the time they began their raids into the North Sea and wider Atlantic were a still pagan people.

Military balances

The military balance was strongly on the side of the Vikings. They were a substantially militarized people. The people they attacked were Feudal socities that did not have standing armies or ailarized population. They were peasant farmers (serfs) lorded over by Feudal lords with small numbers of armed knights supportng them. The Viking longboats gave the raiders the ability to rapidly move forces and strike at will anywhere along the coast. Historians for some time though that early Viking raids were conducted by a few elite warriors leading poorly armed farm boys. A find of the remains of a Viling raiding party at Salme, Estonia revealed mostly well-armed raiders with full war gear. The monastic communities coastal communities had little or no local defense forces. European Feudal lords did not want a weapobized society. Not only was that expensive, but if you arms the peasants, they might use those arms aganst you. Rather Feudal lords wanted an unarmed peasantry that could be controlled by a small number of highly trained, well-armed retainers. Nor did the Feudal lords have the ability to rapidly move forces to defend comminities attacked. Viking graves incontrast suggest a very weaonized society. Roads were virtually non existent in England and the rest of Europe. Once the Vikings shifted from raiding to invasion, the military balance began to shift, but even so they destroyed Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and almost overan England.

Political organiation

Political developments in Europe were favorable for an age of large-scale piracy. Europe was just emerging from the Dark Ages. This was not just an economic matter, but a political matter as well. The British Isles were divided into weal feudal states. None of them had substantial standing armies. Ireland had an especially weak political structure. They could not mobilize forces to repel raiders and proved to be unable to even mobilize armies to withstand ctul invading forces. On the Continent, Chralemage built a powerful army, but after his death (814) was divided among his sons and was unable to effectiveky deal with Viking incursions. Feudalism was a decentralized system which impaired effective resistance to the Viking menace. Denmark, Sweden, and Norway centalized kingdoms in which the crwn had a degree of control that did not exst in the rest of Europe, except briefly n Chrlemage's kingdom. The new kings forced hundreds of chieftains from their lands. These war lords sought refuge and econmic success elsewhere, turing to pillage nd plunder by first staging raids along the coast of the British Isles and evetually Western Europe. [Barrett, pp. 678-79.]

Technology

Scandavia ws not an important sefaring area during ancient times or even the early Dark Ages. But as thenew nore militized Scandanavia began to take shape, important technological advances began a transition to seafaring (7th century). It was all built around the sail. Earlier ships were powered primarily by oar. Viking attacks were made possible because of important technological advances that allowed Viking raiders to venture beyond the relatively calm waters and short distances of the Baltic Sea. [Fergusson, p. 58.] These developments coalesed in what we now call the longboat. Scandanavian ship builders and mariners made several important technological advances in sailing technology and practices. The Viking longboat was a technological mrvel as well as stmetrical works of art. This made it possible to navigate and sail long distance, including into the dangerous waters of the North Sea and North Atlantic. [Pearson] Some of the important developments included: the use of larger sails, tacking practices, and 24-hour sailing. [Barrett, p. 673.] Skilled carpenters perfected designs for sleek, sail powered vessels. This began in the Baltic as designs and techniques were perfected. The remains of a long boat and raiding party has been discovered on Saaremaa off the coast of Estonia has been dated to abouut 750. [Pringle, p. 39.] A few decades later, Viking raiders had ships that could carry them into the on wars of the North Sea and North Atlantic.

Sources

Barrett, James H. "What caused the Viking Age?" Antiquity Vol. 82, No. 317 (2008), pp: 671-85.

Ferguson, Robert. The Vikings: A History (New York: Viking, 2009).

Fletcher, Richard. Roman-Britain and Anglo-Saxon England 55 BC-AD 1066. (Mechanicsburg: 2002).

Folger, Tim. "Darkness at the edge of the world," Smithsonian (March 2017), pp. 28-39, 82.

Hansen, I.L and C. Wickham. The Long Eighth Century: Production, Distribution, and Demand (Leiden: Brill, 2000).

Pearson, Andrew. "Piracy in late Roman Britain: A perspective from the Viking Age," Britannia Vol. 37 (2006).

Pringle, Hather. "New visions of the Vikings," MNatioal Geographic (March 2017), pp. 30-51.

Simek, Rudolf. The Emergence of the Viking Age: Circumstances and Conditions (2005).

Created: 6:50 AM 3/10/2017
Last updated: 6:50 AM 3/10/2017