Figure 1.--The photo was taken in a market in Natitingou, a town in what at the time was in the norther part of French Dahomey. The photograph is undated, but looks like the early-20th century. The main ethnic groups are the Ditammari, Waama and Dendi. The French influence is not yet pronounced. This image could easily have been taken centuries earlier. Traditional African religion, Christianity, and Islam were practiced in Dahomey. Christiamity perdiminated in the south and Islm in the north. In this photo there are both Muslim and tribal people. Very probably the children belong to a tribal family, but they could be Muslim. Little children were not required to wear clothing.

The area of modern Benin was part of an important African civilization--the Ypruba Kingdom (14th century). Benin is the former French colomy of Dahomey. It has no coherence in African terms. Europeans beginning with the Portuguese arrived along the coast (mid-15th century). Much of the value of Benin to the Europeans was based on the slave trade. The Portuguese did not move to colonize the interior. European contact was limited to coastal trading posts. The Portuguese establish trading posts all along the West African coast. Porto-Novo was their trading post on what is now Benin. English, Dutch, Spanish, and French traders followed, primarily to participate in the slave trade. The French established posts at Ouidah and Savé (mid-17th century). The English and Portuguese built forts nearby (early-18th century). There is no gegraphic sence to the borders or African historical experience. It resulted from the Anglo-French colonial rivalry as part of the scarable for Africa (late-19th-century). Europeans drew boundaries with no geographic or ethnic coherence. Northern Benin is culturally similar to the countries it borders rather than the tribal groups of the south. Southern Benin was a more coherent cultural entity because several native kingdoms developed there among the Fon and Adja people. They were related to the Ewe of southern Togo and southeastern Ghana. The kingdoms were of Allada, Abomey (or Dahomey), and Adjatché (later Porto-Novo). Two brothers of the king of Allada created their own kingdoms, north and southeast of Allada. Abomey conquered Allada (1724). They seized the port of Ouidah (1727). This enabled them to dominate the local slave trade, an enormous source of wealth. Abomey was noted for recruiting women soldiers for regular service. The French seized control and moved to end the slave trade (1885). While the French did end slavery, they did little to prepare Benin for independence. Benin achieved independence (1960). As with many African countries, Benin adopted, statist, Marxist solutions to rapidly modernize society. The primary result of statist solutions was corruption on a phemomenasl scale and ecomomic disaster. The Communist regime was finally ousted (1991). The Comminists regained power (1995, but were agaun outsted (1998).

Pre-history

Yoruba Kingdom: Ife (1100-1700 AD)

Evidence including oral history suggest the existence of the Yoruba people in the lower western Niger area for several millennia. Thgese people were not initially known as the Yoruba, although they shared a common ethnicity and spoke related languages. Definitive archeological work confirms the presence of the Yoruba (4th century BC). The Yoruba coalesed into a formal kingom--Ife (1100 AD). The power of Ife peaked (14th century). The ruler or oba was referred to as the Ooni of Ife.

Benin Empire (1300-1850)

The Benin Empire was centered in the city of Benin rose to rival Ife. The Benin Empire was another largely Yoruba polity and controlled a large area of modern Nigeria. It was aowerful state (1300-1850 AD). The ruler was the Oba of Benin.

Europeans

Europeans beginning with the Portuguese arrived along the coast (mid-15th century). The area of modern Benin was the location of an important West African kingdom that rose in prominance at about the same time the Europeans arrived (15th century). The coastal areas became known as the Slave Coast in the sence that other areas became known as the Ivory Coast and the Gold Coast. The area was an important source of slaves in the Atlantic slave trade. Much of the value of Benin to the Europeans was based on the slave trade. The Portuguese did not move to colonize the interior. European contact was limited to coastal trading posts. The Portuguese establish trading posts all along the West African coast. Porto-Novo was their trading post on what is now Benin. English, Dutch, Spanish, and French traders followed, primarily to participate in the slave trade. The French established posts at Ouidah and Savé (mid-17th century). The Portuguese built a fort at Ouidah (1727) which remained Portuguese territory until Benin achieved independence (1961), The English also built a nearby fort. The European influence did not extend much beyond coastal forts. European traders were regulated by the yevogan of Ouidah, the Abomey functionary and subjected to substantial taxes. Captives were brought to the coast from where they were shipped across the Atlantic. Slave masters attempted to seliminate African culture and religion, but some elements remined, one of the most obvious is voodoo. There is no geographic sence to the borders or African historical experience. It resulted from the Anglo-French colonial rivalry as part of the scarable for Africa (late-19th-century). Europeans drew boundaries with no geographic or ethnic coherence. Northern Benin is culturally similar to the countries it borders rather than the tribal groups of the south. Southern Benin was a more coherent cultural entity because several native kingdoms developed there among the Fon and Adja people. They were related to the Ewe of southern Togo and southeastern Ghana.

Yoruba Oyo Empire

Ife was suplanted by the Yoruba Oyo Empire as the dominant Yoruba political structure (1700-1900 AD. The oba or ruler of Oyo was the Alaafin of Oyo. Ife continued to be revered as the spiritual homeland of the Yoruba. Oyo was composed of city states each of which was controlled by Obas. (These can be seen as chiefs or princes. They were royal sovereigns with a wide range of individual titles. They ruled along with councils made up of Oloyes who were individuals of status within the community. This included men of royal or noble descent. Many were related to the Obas or each other. Guilds and cults were used to rule the city states. The city states also varied as to the authority of the Obas and councils. Oyo had powerful, autocratic monarchs who were virtually absolute. Other city states such as the Ijebu city-states had more of a senatorial sysdtem with the councils exerting considerable influence and the power of Ọba, called the Awujale of Ijebuland, had more limited authority.

Dahomey Kingdom

Precolonial tribl kingdoms developd in southastern West Africa, including Allada, Dahomey (Abomey), and Adjatché (later Porto-Novo). Dahomey was located in what is now the southern area of Benin. It was founded as the Euroeans began to increase their opressure on Africa nd the Trabns-Atlantuc Slave Trade was becoming important (17th century). The Kingdome became an important participaht in the slave trade. Two brothers of the king of Allada accrding to tribl tradition created their own kingdoms, north and southeast of Allada. Dahomey conquered Allada (1724). They seized the port of Ouidah (1727). This enabled them to dominate the local slave trade, an enormous source of wealth. Dahomey reached the height of its power and xtent during the peak of the slave trade (18th and early-19th centuries). Dahomey was ruled by essentially an absolute monarchy. This was not common in Africa. The Dahomey king was surrounded by a royal court. Commoners and slaves lived in a rigidly stratified society. Dahomey involved women in the ruling structure. Every male official had a female counterpart at court who served to monitor the male official activities and reported on him to the king. There were also female soldiers. The Europeans called them called Amazons. They served as royal bodyguards when not in combat. The purpoe of the army was not jut for fighting otherkingdms, but to capture peopled that could be sold to the Europeans as slaves. Dahomey was conquered by French forces from Senegal as France was fiormally colonizing much of West Africa, part of the 19th century Scranble for Africa. Dahomey became the last of the traditional African kingdoms to fall to the European colonial powers.

Anglo-French Rivalry (19th Century)

The French began to move to establish control beyond coastal forts. A rivalry developed between the British and French. A major factor was the decline of the slave trade which undermined the economic base of the tribal chiefs. Improving European technology and weaponry was another factor. The campaign against the slave trade was largely carried out by the British Royal Navy abd had made major inroads by the mid-19th century. The development of the palm oil trade became a major economic force. The French established a major presence at Grand Popo (1857). Their first major political step was a treaty with the king of Abomey which granted them the right to set up a trading post at Cotonou. The British at the same time established a presence at Lagos to the east which they annexed (1861). This essentially ended the Atlantic slave trade. Arab slave trading in the north continued on a small scale. The Anglo-French rivalry became pronounced in the Porto-Novo area. Local chiefs attempted to play the British and French off each other with vary degrees of success.

French Dahomey (1882-1960)

Benin is the former French colomy of Dahomey. The British-French rivalry was finally resolved. The French began to seize control and putting an end to the slave trade (1872). The French established a protectorate based on Porto-Novo (1882). The French moved to completely end the slave trade (1885). The British established posts to the West at various points, but these were turned over to the French under he Anglo-French agreements of 1888–89. The border with German Togo to the west was delineated with in treaties (1885 and 1899). Abomey itself remained outside French control and continued to tax French and other European trade. Fighting broke out between Abomey and the French in Porto-Novo broke (1889). The issue was France's rights of sovereignty over Cotonou. Béhanzin, who became chief of Abomey, attacked the French in Cotonou. His army included a group of about 2,000 Amazons (women soldiers). He then attacked Porto-Novo and Grand Popo (1891). The French landed a large, well-armed expeditionary force commanded by Dodds (1893). They quickly seized control of Abomey. The French Government declared a protectorate. Béhanzin attempted to resist from the interior, but finally surrendered (1894). The French exiled him to Martinique where he died in 1906. His successor was his brother Agoli Agbo who was also exileded (1899). It is unclear wether this was because he crefused to cooperate with the French or for corupt administration as the French claimed. Whatever the reason, this ended the Abomey Kingdom. French Dahomey achieved the borders of modern Benin (1892-98). The French launched exploratory and military expeditiins into the interior and the north. They began to contruct a railway into the interior (1900). The objective was to connect the coast with the Niger river. The railway of course had economic, military, and political consequences. In an administrative reorganization, Dahomey became one constiuent part of the federation of French West Africa with an admiistrative capital in Dakar (1904). When World war I broke out in Europe, British and French troops moved into German Togo and partioned it (1914). The French obtained the larger portion and after the War the League of Nations apprioved a mandate. Dahomey during World War II supported the Free French. After the War, a new French constitution granted Dahomey a deputy and two senators in the French parliament. It also created an elected Territorial Assembly with real input in the budget. Further reforms expanded the powers of the Territorial Assembly (1956-57). A major step was creating a Council of Government elected by the Assembly which was given executive control of domestic administration. Other reforms included universal adult suffrage and the creation of a single, unified electorate. Dahomey voted to accept Gen. de Gaulle's new French constitution (1958). Provision in the Constitution addressed the status of the colonies. Dahomey chose to become an autonomous republic within the French Community.

Independence

Benin achieved independence (1960). At independence the country became Benin. Dahoney at independence was a country wiyhout coherence in African terms. The Yoruba were divided among several dufferent countries. And tribes unrelated to the Yourba were included as part of the country. A series of military governments replaced the civilian government. As with many African countries, Benin adopted, statist, Marxist solutions to rapidly modernize society. Mathieu Kerekou established a Marxist regime (1972). The primary result of statist solutions was corruption on a phemomenal scale and ecomomic disaster. Marxism proved an abject failure as economic conditions declined. Kerekou resigned from the army to become a civilian head of state. He began to doubt amd moved to liberalise the economy. A move to democracy began (1989). The Communist regime was finally ousted (1991). Former Prime Minister Nicephore Soglo won a free election (1991). Sogolo achieved the first successful transfer of power in Africa from a dictatorship to a democracy. Kerekou returned to power by the voters (1996 and 2001). Some irregularities were alleged. Kerekou finally retired at the end of his second term (2006) and was succeeded by Thomas Yayi Boni, a political newcomer and independent. President Yayi has launched a high profile fight against corruption and has made economic growth a major priority.

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Created: 8:12 PM 12/3/2010
Last updated: 6:44 AM 9/20/2018