Figure 1.--Lightly populated Somalia was not important in the Indian Ocean slave trade. This only changed in the 19th century when the Sukltan of Zanzibar beggan using East Africans his slavers captured to work on plantations he established along the southern coast of what is now Somalia. This photo was published in the 'National Geographic Magazine' (June 1917). The caption read, 'YOUNG SOMALI MOTHER AND BABE: ADEN. A Somali woman is instinct with a sense of protection for the innocence and helplessness of a child.' So the woman and her child were Somali, but the photo was taken across the Gulf of Aden in British controlled Aden. A bare breasted woman in the Arabic Peninsula looks very strange, but we think that there is a simple explication--the young woman is a slave. Slavery is sanctioned in the Koran and according the Koranic rules of modesty, a slave woman is not required to cover the full body in front of strangers. It is enough that she cover the pelvis. Moreover the hijab was often forbidden to slave women to distinguis them from free women.
About this hypothesis we cannot be absolutely sure, but we have several clues. The woman is stranger, she is bare breasted and without hijab. Slavery was widely practiced in the Arabic Peninsula and still today, although illegaly, in Yemen there are many slaves that are normally sold and bought. Through the centuries, Africa was a source for this trade. We don't know if somewhere slave women were required to be bare breasted. We think, however, that without a general rule, an owner could impose it on his slaves. Perhaps that could be the case in the photo, because Somali women usually didn't go bare breasted in Somalia. Photographer: Mrs. Charles K. Moser.
This East African country juts out into the Indian Ocean south of the Arabian Peninsula. It was Islamicized soon after the Arab outburst. Arab and Persian traders, both acgtive in the Indian Ocean, established posts along the Horn of Africa (7th-10th centuries). Nomadic tribes continued to control the interior, occasionally pushing into Ethiopian territory. Nominal Turkish rule extended to the northern coast (16th century). ,The sultans of Zanzibar gained control in the south and introduced slavery as a major part of a developing plantation economy. The British occupied Aden at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula (1839). This was part of an effort to secure sea lanes between Britain and India. Aden was an important Royal Navy port in the campasign to end the Indian Ocean slave trade. The Somali coast was an important source of food for Aden because the arid conditions on the Arabian Peninsula limited agricuilture. The Horn of Africa was colonized by the Europeans in the mid- and late-19th century. The French established a coal-mining station at Djibouti (1862). This became known as French Somaliland. The Italians founded a settlement in Eritrea. Egypt which became independent from the Ottaman Empire, laid claim to the former Ottoman territories in the area, but did not have the naval power to enforce them. The British with the powerful Royal Navy did and they saw the area as important to trade routes through the Suez Canal to India. A British colony was established in the north (1884). The colonization of the area resulted in the liberation of large numbers of Africans that had been enslaved by Arabs (the Sultan of Oman/Zanzibar) operating plantations. British and an Italian protectorates occupied what is now Somalia. Italy invaded Ethiopia and created a vast East African colony (1935). The British defeated the Italians in World War II, liberating Ethiopia and occupying Italian Somaliland (1941). After the War it became a U.N. Trusteeship. Somalia was formed during the de-colonization proces following World War II. The former British and Italian Somaliland were united (1960). French Somaliland to the east remained separate as Dijibouti. The country consists of coastal lowlands and a largely arid interior plateau. The border is disputed with Ethiopia. This is a source of friction as well as the presence of ethnic Somalisin Ethiopia and Kenya. The population until recently was largely nomadic. After a war with Ethiopia and the overthrow of a long-time dictator, Somalia has descended into anarchy.
Geography
Geography and climate has been an imprtant determinant of Somali history. This East African country juts out into the Indian Ocean south of the Arabian Peninsula. This is often described as the Horn of Africa. The Somali coast and Somali ports from ancient times were visuitd by traders sailing to and from the Indiam sub-continent. The interior is arid and at its core along the eastern border of Ethiopia is the Ogaden Desert. Promimity to the Red Sea Straits of Bab el-Mandeb and the long Red Sea /Indian Ocean coast make Somali a very strategic location.
Pre-history
Arid Somalia was not an iviting place for early homonoids. Although Ethiopia and Somali are very close to the arabian Peninsula, the short streach of the Straits of Bab el-Mandeb were a significant enough barrier so that the prehustoric migration out of Africa took place throught what is now Egypt and the Levannt. Some scholrs believe that a small hunmanoid group did eventully make the southern crossing and settled an area in the Arabanian Peninsula, but never moved further.
Ancient History
What is now Somalia was known in ancient times. The Egyptians who were active in the Red Sea area knew it as the Land of Punt. The Egyptians came to the northern Somali coast to trade for incense and aromatic herbs. While Somalia itself was very poor, because the arid land did not support intensive agriculture, was surrounded by more prosperous areas. NJot only did Egyoptian merchants visit the area, but to the north across the Gulf of Aden was Saba, and the legendary Queen of Sheba, first part of Arabia to generate a prosperous kingdom. And to the west was Aksum (early Ethiopia) with its well-watered highlands.
Ethnic Somalis
Somalia is named after the Somalin people. The origins of the Somalis was a matter of some historical debate. At first they were thought to have originated along the westrn coast to the Red Sea or even southern Arabia to the north of modern day Somalia. There is increasing consensus now that the Somaslis are a branch of the Cushite peoples and had origins tracing back to the southern highlands of Ethiopia, probably the lake regions. They at first populated the northerly area of modern Somalia along the Gulf of Aden coast. Somalis began moving south from the Gulf of Aden area (10th century). About this time, Arabs and Persians established settlements along the Indian Ocean coast. The Somalis had developed their modern way of life, namely pastoral nomadism and the Islam as their religion (18th century).
Arab Colonization (7th-9th centuries)
The Islamization of Somalia is poorly documented. The Horn of Africa jutting out into the Indian Ocean meant that since ancient times, the coastline of wg=hat is now Somalia was much visited by foreign traders. The first Muslims reaching the Somali coast seem to have been those fleeing persecution the Arab peninsula (7th century).
The Arabs and Persians after the Islamic outburst were the most recent group of traders. Coastal areas were thus Islamicized soon after the Arab outburst, shortly after the hijra. Islamization was largely the process of Arab colonization. Arab and Persian traders, both active in the Indian Ocean, established trading posts along the Horn of Africa (7th-10th centuries). Arab merchants sailing dhows plied the Somali coast. It was the most immediate fringe of Africa--Bilad "the Land of the Blacks." Arabs referred to the Somalis, along with related African people, zas the Berberi. Early Arab sources describe Muslims living along the northern Somali coast. [Al-Yaqubi] The Adal Sultanate was based in Zeila controlled the coast (9th-10th centuries). Some authors reoport that this trading effort and settlement was limited at first, but gradually became more important (9th century). Nomadic tribes continued to control the interior, occasionally pushing into Ethiopian territory. Ethiopia remained a Christian enclave. The Adal Sultanate was governed by local dynasties which are poorly understood, ariously described as Somalized Arabs or Arabized Somalis. They also ruled over the Sultanate of Mogadishu in the Benadir region to the south, also founded by Arab traders. Adal's history from this founding period was dominated by a a series of battles with neighbouring Ethiopia (Abyssinia). [Lewis Peoples, p. 140.] Little is known about the Islamization of the nomadic people of the interior. They seem to have beem largely left to their own devices, but over time became Islamicized. Soimalis bcame Sunni Muslims, largely of the shafi'ite school.
Away from the Arabized coast, the vast majority of Somalis lived as nomadic pastoralists in small family groups, in part because of the baren interior could not sustain intensive agriculture or large herds on fixed pastures. Somali livestock consisted if camels, sheep, and goats. Camels were by far the most prized because of their ability to endure the harsh environment. They seved as not only a mode of transportation, but a food siurce (milk and meat) as well as leather. Somalis had to frequently moved their herds seeking fresh pastures. Pastures in the arid interior were esily exhausted. Thus Somalis were limitd by their enviroment to living in small family groups. It also led to a a culture of self-reliance and strong family structures as thee nomadic people neededvto depend on each other to survive. [Lewis, Understanding, pp. 52-54.] There was no concept of national identity. The nomadic life away from the coastal cities and Imans also meant that the Islamization that gradually occurred, was not a severe Islam and one mixed with many traditiinal belifs. Islam thus did not sugnificantly change Somali life. Political organization such as it existed was only loosely developed, limited largely the clan level. [Lewis, Understanding, p.35.] This was the genealogical network within Somali families identified. Arab sultanates, essentially city states along the coast developed with some characteristics of modern nations. They exerted minimal influence on the nomadic population of the interior where most Somalis lived, although they did over time Islamicize the interior. The coastal states linked the nomadic interior, through trade, with international markets. [Bradbury, p. 16.] Clan identity was developed through the male line, but thevdegree to which Somalis politically associated with their clans was 'highly fluid'. Clans in the sparsely populated interior were normaly too widely dispersed to act as any kind of stable political units, and the clans were not a united group. They were divided into many sub-clans. [Lewis Understanding, pp. 27-28.] The largest level of political organization was the clan family. There developed five important clan families in Somalia. [Elmi, p. 35.] The clans and clan families might unite to a degree in the face of foreign invasion. This is the socio-political structure encountere by the Europeans and inherited by the Somali state at independence.
Medieval Era
Portugal
Portuguese explorer Bartolomeu Dias was the first Europeanm to reach the Cape of Good Hope (1488). This opened trade with the Orient. Sundequent expeditions reached India and eventualkly China. The Portuguese had to contend with Arab/Turkish sea power in the Arabian Sea/Indian Ocean. This led to the Battle of Diu (1509). The Portuguese victory led to Western naval dominace. The Portuguese also attempted to set up naval bases which doubled as trading posts. One of the areas where this was attempted was the Somali coast, but without success (16th century). The coastal ports continued to be controlled by Arab merchants, nominal ruled by sultanate of Oman.
Sultan of Zansibar
Nominal Turkish rule extended to the northern coast through the Sultan of Oman (16th century). The Sultanate moved to Zanzibar (19th century) because of the griwing wealth resulting from the slave trade. The sultans of Oman, gained control in the south and introduced slavery on a large scale as a major part of a developing plantation economy. Africanse caotured by Zanzibar based slavers in East Africa and sold in the Zanzibar mrket, both to Europeans and to Arab, Ottoman, and Persian Midde Easterners. The Sultan also founded plantations in southern Somalia where the East African slaves were put to work.
Slavery
Somalia with its large extensive coast juutting out into the Indian Ocean south of Arabia wasore exposed to Arab influence than any other sub-Saharan African country. It was thus more heavily Arabized than othr African countries. Islamic tradition did not allow Muslims to nslave other Muslims. Thus slaves to wotk coastal plantations had to be brought in from other areas of Africa. Africans captives were transported to the Somali port cities of Merka and Brava where they were forced to work on palm oil plantations along the coast and in the Shabelle River valley. Many of those enslaved were Bantus from northeast Tanzania and Mozambique. Few of these slaves ever returned. An influential female Zigua leader, Wanankhucha, led many of her people out of Arab slavery in Somalia (mid-19th century). They hoped to reach Tanzania. They made it to the lower Juba River valley. Here they not only were able to farm, but alsoprotect themselves from hostile Somalis. Wanankhucha took a recent earthquake in the valley as a sign that they should settle there permanently instead of continuing their journey back to Tanzania. Italian authorities after seizing control freed the first slaves (1895). It was a small group of 45 slaves. The chartered company, V. Filonardi, took the action. No further action was taken until an anti-slavery crusader, Robecchi Bricchetti, began publicizing the extent of slavey in Somalia and the failure of the Italian colonial authorities to take any action. Public opinion in Italy pressed for action. Italian authorities finally banned slavery in the early 20th century when they acted in accordance with the Belgium protocol. Some slaves in remote rural locations remained in bondage into the the 1930s. Fascist authorities soon moved to reintroduce a system of coerced labor that wasnot that different from slavery. Freed slaves were conscription by Italian authorities for the agricultural industry. Italian authorities had opened more than 100 plantations in the river valleys. The emancipated Bantu slaves were formed into labor brigades from vilages establishd near the plantations. They were forced to work as farm laborers on plantations owned and operated by the Italian colonial government. The Italians employed non-Bantu personnelto oversea the Bantu workers, in many cases former slave owners. The Bantus had to abandon their own farms and villages. A British official reported, "The conception of these agricultural enterprises as exploitation concessions engendered under the [Italian] fascist regime a labour policy of considerable severity in theory and actual brutality in practice. It was in fact indistinguishable from slavery."
The Indian Ocean slave trade was as in the Atlantic, primarily ended by British diplomats and the Royal Navy. This was primarily the result of the British abolition movement which grew out of the Chriustian churches. Unlike Christianity there was no abolitionist movement which developed out of Islam in Arab or other Muslim countries. In fact, slavery continued in Muslim, mostly Arab contries, into the 20th century. From a very early point, the British realized that the key to ending the Indian Ocean slave trade was Zanzibar. Unlike the Atlantic slave trade which was conducted along the lengthy African coast, a very large part of the Indian Ocean slave trade was conducted through Zanzibar. This gave the British who could use the powerful Royal Navy a great advantage. Zanzibar becamne important because it was an island. Thus the Arabs could easily defend it. Trading outposts on the mainland were vulnerable to African attacks. While the island location was realatively safe from Africam attack, it was particularly vulnerable to the Royal Navy. Thus British diplomats were able to exert considerable influence in Zanzibar. The first diplomatic success was the Moresby Treaty (1822). From that first success, the British gradually pressed the Sultan of Zanzibar for more restriuctions. Royal Navy patrols at sea also pressed the Sultan and slave traders. It was, however, not tell the Scramble for Africa and the European colonization of Africa that the Indian Ocean slave trade was finally ended.
European Colonization of India
The Europeans from an early stage began planting colonies in India which by the time the Europeans arrived in force part of a decaying Mogul Empire. Eventually control of the sub-continent became a contest between Britain and France, a conflict resolved as part of the Seven Years War (18th century). India after the loss of the North American colonies, became Britains most importantb colony--the proverbial jewel in the crown. British control of India meant that the sea lanes between Britain and India became a mater of vital strategic importance. The all-sea route required a lengthy voyage around the Cape of Good Hope. A shorter voyage was possible with a portage at Suez in Ottoman-controlled Egypt. Napoleon's Egyptian expedition (1798-1801) was an effort to cut this route. After the Napoleonic War, Egypt's seizure of Aden (1839) helped to secure this route and control of the northern Somali coast helped support the Aden base. Opening the Suez Canal only increased the strategic importance of Somalia (1869).
The British occupied Aden at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula (1839). This was part of an effort to secure sealanes between Britain and India. Aden was an important Royal Navy port in the campasign to end the Indian Ocean slave trade. The Somali coast was an important source of food for Aden because the arid conditions on the arabian Peninsula limited agricuilture. The Horn of Africa was colonized by the Europeans in the mid- and late-19th century. The French established a coal-mining station at Djibouti (1862). This became known as French Somaliland. The Italians founded a settlement in Eritrea. Egypt which became independent from the Ottaman Empire, laid claim to the former Ottoman territories in the area, but did not have the naval power to enforce them. The British with the powerful Royal Navy did and they saw the area as important to trade routes through the Suez Canal to India. A British colony was established in the north (1884). The colonization of the area resulted in the liberation of large numbers of Africans that had been enslaved by Arabs (the Sultan of Oman/Zanzibar) operating plantations. British and an Italian protectorates occupied what is now Somalia.
Italy at the onset of World War II held both the southern coast of modern Somalia and Eritra. An attempt to add Ethiopia to to these coastal enclaves and creat a large Italian East African colony resulted in defeart at Aduwa/Adowa (1895). It was the only European army defeated by an African army. Mussolini decided to invade Ethiopia again. It was the first Fascist aggression that wold evenntually lead to World War II. Italy invaded Ethiopia using modern arms, including poison gas. The Italians created a vast East African colony (1935). Italy at first remained neutral when Germany and the Soviet Union launched World war II by invading Poland (1939). Italy decided to join the Germans once they had largely defeated France (June 1940). Italian holdings in East Africa included southern Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. The first action in Somalia was an Italian offensive to seize British Somaliland (northern Somalia. The small British force was not capable of defending the colony. The British evacuated this force to accros the narrow Bab-el-Mandeb (باب المندب, 'Gate of Tears'. Italian control of the Horn of Africa could have had disasterous consequences, if they had been able to block supplies through the Gulf of Aden and Red Sea to British forces in Egypt.
Thus italynsucceded in ejected the British from the Horn of Africa. The Italian victory turned out to be short-lived.
The Italian naval and air forces were inadequate as well as the necessary supplies. While the Italains hoped to cut off British forces in Egypt. They did not have the forces to do so. And the Britis Royal Navy dis have the orce to cut off Itlakian forces in East Africa. The principal British and Italian armies were deployed in the Western Desert (coastal Egypt and Libya). Thus after seizing British Somaliland, the outcome in East Africa was largely a matter of awaiting the outcome in the Western Desert. Italy invaded Egypt (September 1940). The British with a smaller force defeated the Italians and drove them back into Libya. With Egypt and Suez saved, the British launched an offensive in East Africa. The Italians on paper had a larger force, but isolated by the Royal Navy, the Italians were defeated by an Empire force aided by Ethiopian irregulars (1941). The British reoccupied northern Somalia/British Somaliland (March 1941). They then began a ightning campaign to retake the whole region from Italy and restore Emperor Haile Selassie to his Ethiopian throne. The British then placed southern Somalia (former Italian Somaliland) and the Ogaden under a military administration. Ethiopia became the first country liberated during World War II. The British took over the administration of former Italian Somaliland and Eritra.
Decolonization
After the War, the Italian Somaliland became a U.N. Trusteeship. Somalia was formed during the de-colonization proces following World War II. The former British and Italian Somaliland were united as part of the independence process (1960). French Somaliland (Djibouti) to the east remained separate.
Britain and Italy granted independence to their respective colonies (1960). The two colonies became the unuted Republic of Somalia. Independent Somalia consists of coastal lowlands and a largely arid interior plateau.
Somalia severed diplomatic relations with Britain when the British granted the Somali-populated Northern Frontier District of Kenya to the Republic of Kenya (1963). There was also a border problem with Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. This was an area that had been seized by Ethiopia early in the 20th century. The lightly populated border area was never well-defined during the colonial era. President Abdi Rashid Ali Shermarke was assassinated and the army seized power (1969). Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre became the new president. He moved Somalia toward the Soviet Union. The Soviets saw the geopolitical importance of the country and a regional counter balance to Ethiopia, a staunch American ally. The Soviets proceeded to heavily arm the Somali Army. Boslstered by Soviet arms, Barre proceeded to retake the Ogaden.
The Ogaden War which combined historic ethnic and cultural differences with Cold war politics. Barre openly supported ethnic Somali rebels in easternmost Ethiopia--the Ogaden Desert. Barre sent his tanks into the region. This was essentially a contunuation of historic conlicts between Somali nomads and Ethiopia. This time the Somli were heavily armed with modern Soviet weaponry. The resulting Ogaden War, however, proved a disaster for Somalia when, as a result of a revolution in Ethiopia, the Soverts shited sides. The Ethiopians with Cuban support smashed the Somali Army in the Ogaden. Barre lost much of his 32,000-man army and most of its tanks, planes, and other Soviet-supplied equipment. President Barre fled the country (1991). This left Somalia in the hands of largely clan-based guerrilla groups with historic animosities. Somalia has descended into anarchy.
Sources
Al-Yaqubi. Ahmad al-Ya'qubi was a 9th century Muslim geographer.
