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The Revolutionary Council proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic (September3, 1969). Gadhafi became head of a Revolutionary Council (September 14). Thus began the story of the most mercurial and incoherent Arab leaders, but managed to control Libya for four decades. The Council seized control of the country's banks, gaining control of 51 percent of the stock. The Council implemented a temporary new constitution (December 11). The Council proclaimed a confederation with Egypt and Sudan (December 26). The Council pressureed Britain amd America to leave and the last foreign troops departed (March 31 and June 30, 1970). Libya nationalized the oil industry and all Italian assets (July 7, 1970). Libya declareed a merger with Egypt (August 2, 1972). Libya announces a merger with Tunisia (January 12, 1974), but neither took place. Gadhafi liked the idea of one unified Arab nation, but was not about to relinguish absolute authority in Libya. Officers attempted a coup, but failed to depose Gadhafi (August 1975). Gadhafi declares Libya jamahiriya, state of the masses, but in fact the country became his own personal fiefdom. Students demonstrated, but were brutally supressed by the security forces (April 5, 1977). Border clashes occured with Egypt (July 1977). Libya changed it flag to an all green banner (Noveber 1977). Gadhafi moved to create a socialist economy, meaning government control of economic activity (1978). Like many in the Arab world at th time, socialism was seen as the wave of the future. The socialist ideology was not based on any real economic studies, only Gadhafi's beleief based on a general feeling among Arab nationalists that socialism was the future. He rejected the authority of the hadith in the Islamic tradition (February 29, 1979). Hadith are the oral traditions concerning the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. Hadith collections are widely regarded in the Muslim world as important tools for determining Sunnah, or the Muslim way of life, by all major traditional schools of jurisprudence. The Government moved to find and eliminate foreign opposition to the Libyan government (1980). Attacks on Americans in Europe were conducted. The United States in response embargoed Libya (March 6, 1982). Libya invaded northern Chad (June 1983). An assassination attempt was made on Gadhafi (May 8, 1984). The Government expeled 100,000 immigrant workers, many of whom were Egyptian and Tunisian (September 1985). Borders with both countries were closed. President Reagan in resoponse to the attacks on Americans ordered an attack on mostly military targets in Tripoli and Benghazi. American aircraft in Britain are used (April 17, 1986). NATO allies refuse overfights. One of those targets were apparently Gadhafi himself. Libya's Soviet air defenes proved ineffective. Gadhafi was reportedly personally shaken by the effectiveness of the American attacks and restricted, but did not end terror operatons. Libya's socialist economy proved an abject failure. As a result, the Governent introduced liberal reconomic reforms (March 27, 1987). Libya lost the territory it occupied in northern Chad (September 1987). The Government made some gesture to the political opposition and released some political prisoners (April 1988). The borders with Tunisia and Egypt were reopened (April 1988). Libyan operatives bomb Pan Am Flight 103 (December 21, 1988). It would not have been cobducted without Gaddafi's approval. It is difficult to understand just what he planned to achieve. The plane fell on the small town of Lockerbie, Scotland. The security services moved against Islamic Jihad and arrest about 1,500 people (January-March 1989). The Government announces the Maghreb Union (with Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) (February 17, 1989). Libya set up a body to promote world Muslim revolution (September 1989). Gadhafi attempteds to improve relations with Egypt (1991). The United Nations imposed sanctions on Libya, in retaliation for the country's refusal to extradite two Libyan citizens charged with the Pan Am bombing (April 1992). Libya violated the U.N. ban on international flights in and out of Libya, with a flight taking pilgrims to Mecca for the hajj (April 1995). Gadhafi called on all Arab countries to expell Palestinian refugees and immigrant workers to protest the peace process between Israel and Palestine. Libya ordered the expulsion of its Palestinians (September 1, 1995). Violent clashes occur between Libyan police and militant Islamists occur in Benghazi (September 6-7, 1995). Security forces arrest Islamists and Sudanese expatriates. Libya stoped the expulsion of Palestinians (October 25, 1995). The United States implemented trade sanctions involving actions against foreign companies trading with Libya (August 1996). Several European countries including NATO llies complain. Libya finally agreed to extradite the two Libyans accused of involvement in the 1988 Pan Am bombing (February 13, 1999). The sanctions against Libya are suspended when the two suspects are surrendered for trials in an international tribunal in the Netherlands (April 5, 1999). Libya made some progress in improving relations with neighboring countries. Air flights are resumed with Morocco and Egypt (July 2000). The United Nations lifted the 11- year long sanctions on Libya after the country payed indemnites to victims and their relatives of Libyan-sponsored terror attacks (September 12, 2003). The United States after Libya agrees to end it nuclear weapons program lifts all remaining sanctions on Libya (September 20, 2004).
Muammar Mohammed Abu Minyar Gaddafi came from a Berber (Bedouin) family and was born in a tent close to Qasr Abu Hadi, a rural area near Sirte . It was a desert area in Tripolitania (western Libya), but actually located between the two areas of western and eastern Libya. His family was part of a small and rather uninfluential tribal group -- the Qadhadhfa. They were Arabized Berbers. ] His mother was Aisha. His father was Mohammad Abdul Salam bin Hamed bin Mohammad, known as Abu Meniar. He eaked out a rather meagre subsistence as a goat and camel herder. Berbrs were both nomadic and illiterate. As such there were no written birth records. Thus we do not know precisely when Muammar was born with any precisiomn, but it was probably about 1942/43. Some gistorians writing about Gaddafi supct it may have been the late-1930s. He was the only survivunbg son, but he grew up with three sisters. His Berber origins and childhood had a profound impact on his attitudes and preference. He is said to have preferred the desert over the city. As Libya's long time ruler, he was knon to retreat into the desert to meditate. [Kawczynski, p. 9.] As a young boy, Muammar had not exposure to books. But he would have been exposed to hatred toward European colonialism--meaning Italian colonialism. Libya was a nominal Ottoman colony when it was invaded by Italy (1911). Gaddafi's paternal grandfather, Abdessalam Bouminyar, was reportedly killed during ghe invasion. [Bianco 1975, p. 4.] Italy at first only occupied the cities and coastal area because of resistance from the Libyans. After World War I conducted a brutal pscification operation, even using poison gas. Depending on his age, he may have witnessed some of the World War II campaign in the Western Desert. At the end of World War II, Libya was occupied by British and French forces. The initial planns were to divide the country. The General Assembly of the United Nations (U.N.) to grant political independence. The U.N. created the United Kingdom of Libya (1951). Sīdī Muḥammad Idrīs al-Mahdī al-Sanūsī was a Libyan nationalist anbd Muslim cleric who had resisted Italian colonization. He cooperated with the British during World War II. Libya was created as a federal state. The pro-Western Idris I was the initial leader. He banned political parties and centralized power in his monarchy. Gaddafi's earliest education like many Libyans at the time was was of a religious nature, taught by a local Islamic scholar. [St. John, pp. 135–136.] He then moved to nearby Sirte to attend primary school. He moved through six grades in only four years. [Blundy & Lycett, p. 39.] And unlike the impression given by his subsequent rule, this suggests that he was actually a rather smart boy. Libya at the time did not have a free public education system. Is father was hardly well off, but saw education as important. Even so he made financial sacrifices to send his son to school. Muammar would sleep in a mosque and at the weekend walk 20 miles to be with his parents. At school, Gaddafi would later describe how he was taunted by the most town children for being a poor Berber, but he was proud of his identity and sought to promote the same pride among the small number of other Berber children. He was the oldest boy in his class because he started later. The family moved to the market town of Sabha in Fezzan, south-central Libya. His father had obtained employment as caretaker for a tribal leader. This was a significant step up. Muammar was able to attend secondary school. This was a major ahievement in a country where much of the oopulation still did not comopelete primary school. The young Gaddafi in contrast to his priomary school was reportedly popular at the Sabha school, making long-lasting frindships. Some of his friends would receive important after his rise to power. His best friend Abdul Salam Jalloud. It is at this time that Egyptian President Nasser became Gaddafi's political hero. There were no many Libyans with secular educatins. Thus many teachers at Sabha were Egyptian. Gaddafi was exposed for the first time pan-Arab newspapers and radio broadcasts, especially the Cairo-based Voice of the Arabs. [Bearman, p. 58.] As a young man, Gaddafi watched the major events shaking the Arab world: Arab–Israeli War (1948), the Egyptian Revolution (1952), the Suez Crisis (1956), Nasser's failed attempt at union with Syria (1958-61). Notice that nothing at the time would have influenced Gaddafi and other Arab leaders toward what we now know is modernity--caputalism and democracy. Rather the dominant nrative iof the future was socialism and autcracy. His road to power would be the Libyan Milatary Accademy which at the time had British instructors.
Young officers influenced by President Nasser in Egypt and led by Col. Mu'ammaru Gadhafi launched a coup against King Idris and attack the Royal Palace (Septembr 1, 1969). Qadafi established a Revolutionjary Council to govern the Libyan Arab Republic. He proceeded to run Libya with an often incoherent mixture of Islamic, socialist, and pan-Arab ideas. Qadhafi rejected democracy and political parties and claimed be estanlishing a 'third way' superior to both capitalism and communism. His ideas are expressed in his Green Book.
The Revolutionary Council proclaimed the Libyan Arab Republic (September3, 1969). Gadhafi became head of a Revolutionary Council (September 14). Thus began the story of the most mercurial and incoherent Arab leaders, but managed to control Libya for four decades. One wonders about hissanity trying to follow the twisra and turns of his leadership. But one thing he seems to have been veyy good at was holding on to power. He basically ruled as an absoluist dictator. The Wesrtern oriented King Idris was deposed. Col Gaddafi pursues pan-Arab agenda by posturing mergers with several Arab countries. He introduced state socialism by nationalising most economic activity, including the oil industry.
Col Gaddafi launched a cultural revolution. A the heart of the effort was the formation of people's committees in schools, hospitals, universities, workplaces and administrative districts.
The Council seized control of the country's banks, gaining control of 51 percent of the stock. The Council implemented a temporary new constitution (December 11, 1969). Libya changed it flag to an all green banner (Noveber 1977). Gadhafi moved to create a socialist economy, meaning government control of economic activity (1978). Like many in the Arab world at the time, socialism was seen as the wave of the future. The socialist ideology was not based on any real economic studies, only Gadhafi's beleft that socialism was the future. Here we can not blame Gadafi as much as other aeeas.
After all, large numbers of destnguished academicins in the west have come the conclusion that socialism is a superior economic system to capitalism despite the clear record of capitalist success and socialist failure. Libya's socialist economy proved an abject failure as in all other countries . As a result, the Governent introduced liberal reconomic reforms (March 27, 1987). Assent the rule of law, however, capitalism had lttle chance of fluourishing in Libya.
Gaddadi blike Nasser spoke incesently about Arab unity and made reoeared annuncements about unions with other Arab countries. The Council proclaimed a confederation with Egypt and Sudan (December 26, 1969). A National referendum approves proposed Federation of Arab Republics (FAR) comprising Libya, Egypt and Syria. Of course it never occurred. Libya declareed another merger with Egypt (August 2, 1972). Libya then announced a merger with Tunisia (January 12, 1974), but neither took place. Gadhafi liked the idea of one unified Arab nation, but was not about to relinguish his absolute authority in Libya. The union announcements were made without any talks or ar=hreements on how union was to be avieved.
The Government announces the Maghreb Union (with Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) (February 17, 1989), again wiyh out an preparations on the details of union. Union would require some of the authoritarian leaders of these counteues to relinguish power and while all were willing to discuss Arab unity, none were willing to give up power, last of all Gaddafi. .
The Council ordered Britain amd America to leave. The British closed their airbase in Tobruk. The United States closed the the giant Wheelus air force base in Tripoli. The last foreign troops departed (March 31 and June 30, 1970). The property belonging to Italian settlers was nationalised.
Libya nationalized the oil industry and all Italian assets (July 7, 1970).
Officers attempted a coup, but fail to depose Gadhafi (August 1975).
Col. Gaddafi declared a people's revolution. He changed the country's official name from the Libyan Arab Republic to the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah and began establishing revolutionary committees. The result was institutionalised chaos, economic decline, and even more arbitrariness in Gaddafi's regime. While Gadhafi declared Libya jamahiriya (state of the masses), but in fact the country became his own personal fiefdom.
Students demonstrated, but were brutally supressed by the security forces (April 5, 1977).
Border clashes occured with Egypt (July 1977). The Government expeled 100,000 immigrant workers, many of whom were Egyptian and Tunisian (September 1985). Borders with both countries were closed.
The borders with Tunisia and Egypt were reopened (April 1988). Gadhafi attempteds to improve relations with Egypt (1991). Libya made some progress in improving relations with neighboring countries. Air flights are resumed with Morocco and Egypt (July 2000).
Gadafi like many of the forst generation of Arab lkeaders was committed to Aab socialism. They were not strongly committed to Islam. Thus he rejected the authority of the hadith in the Islamic tradition (February 29, 1979). The Hadith are the oral traditions concerning the words and deeds of the Prophet Muhammad. Hadith collections are widely regarded in the Muslim world as important tools for determining Sunnah, or the Muslim way of life, by all major traditional schools of jurisprudence. The security services moved against Islamic Jihad and arrest about 1,500 people (January-March 1989). Libya set up a body to promote world Muslim revolution (September 1989). Violent clashes occur between Libyan police and militant Islamists occur in Benghazi (September 6-7, 1995). Security forces arrest Islamists and Sudanese expatriates.
The Government moved to find and eliminate foreign opposition to the Libyan government (1980).
American carrier aircraft shoot down two Libyan aircraft which challenged its warplanes over the Gulf of Sirte, claimed by Libya as its territorial water. Realizing his aircraft were not march for the Americans, Gadafi ordered attacks on Americans in Europe. The United States in response embargoed Libya (March 6, 1982). Britain breaks off diplomatic relations with Libya after a British policewoman is shot dead outside the Libyan People's Bureau (embassy) in London (1984). This occurred while anti-Gaddafi protests were taking place outsise the Bureau. Libya was involved in the bombing of a discotheque in Berlin frequented by American military personnel. President Reagan in response to the attacks on Americans, ordered an attack on mostly military targets in Tripoli and Benghazi. American aircraft in Britain are used (April 17, 1986). Britain cooperated, but other NATO allies refused American overfights. One of those targets were apparently Gadhafi himself. Libya's Soviet air defenes proved ineffective. Gaddafi's house was hit, killing his adopted daughter. Over 100 people were killed. Gadhafi was reportedly personally shaken by the effectiveness of the American attacks, especially the targeting of his home. Gaddafi restricted, but did not end terror operatons. Libyan operatives bombed Pan Am Flight 103 (December 21, 1988). It would not have been conducted without Gaddafi's approval. It is difficult to understand just what he planned to achieve, but retaliation for the air raid is the most likeky explanation. The plane fell on the small town of Lockerbie, Scotland. The United Nations imposed sanctions on Libya, in retaliation for the country's refusal to extradite two Libyan citizens charged with the Pan Am bombing (April 1992). Libya violated the U.N. ban on international flights in and out of Libya, with a flight taking pilgrims to Mecca for the hajj (April 1995). The United States implemented trade sanctions involving actions against foreign companies trading with Libya (August 1996). Several European countries including NATO llies complain. Libya finally agreed to extradite the two Libyans accused of involvement in the 1988 Pan Am bombing (February 13, 1999). The United Nations suspended sanctions against Libya when the two Libyan suspects are surrendered for trials in an international tribunal in the Netherlands, but to be conducted under Scottish law (April 5, 1999). Diplomatic relations with Britain were restored. The Special Scottish court in the Netherlands found one of the two Libyans accused of the Lockerbie bombing, Abdelbaset Ali Mohamed al-Megrahi, guilty and sentences him to life imprisonment (January 31, 2001). Megrahi's co-accused, Al-Amin Khalifa Fahimah, was found not guilty and freed to return to Libya. He was received as a hero. The United Nations completely lifted the 11-year long sanctions on Libya after the country payed indemnites to victims and their relatives of Libyan-sponsored terror attacks (September 12, 2003). The United States after Libya agrees to end it nuclear weapons program lifted all remaining sanctions on Libya (September 20, 2004).
The Chadian–Libyan conflict was a series of sporadic engagements in Chad between 1978 and 1987 between Libyan and Chadian forces. Libya began intervening in Chad's internal affairs even bedfore Gaddafi seized power. The Chadian Civil War reached northern Chad alng the Libyan border (1968). There were four different Libyan interventions: 1978, 1979, 1980–1981 and 1983–1987. In each of these interventions Gaddafi had the support of different Chadian factions. Chad had been a French coloby and Libya's opponents were supported by the French government. The French intervened militarily to save the Chadian government: 1978, 1983, and 1986. Libyan troops start intervening on a large scale in civil war in northern Chad. Libyan forces occupy Aozou Strip in northern Chad (June 1983). Libya lost most of the territory it occupied in northern Chad (September 1987). Libya returns the Aozou Strip to Chad (1994).
An assassination attempt was made on Gadhafi (May 8, 1984).
Gadafi began expelling Palestinians and called on all Arab countries to do the same. He objected to the Oslo Accirds--the peace process between Israel and the Palistinian Liberation Organization (PLO). He expeleds some 30,000 Palestinians as well as other immigrant workers. He ordered the expulsion Palestinians (September 1, 1995). He stoped the expulsion of Palestinians two months later (October 25, 1995).
Libyam mobs kill dozens of African immigrants in western Libya who disturbed by the large number of African workers coming into the country (September 2000). Gadaffi was responsible for most of what went in in Libya. This apopears to have been an un-orcestrated outburst of popular sentiment.
Gaddafi orders his troops jinto the Central African Republic (CAR) to help put down a coup attempt against President Ange-Felix Patasse (May 2001). A month later, Libya says its troops have returned from the CAR (June 19, 2001). A small contingent remauined in the CAR at the request of President Ange-Patasse to train the CAR Army and the president's personal guard.
Gadaffi seems to have decicded to take advantage of the ending of United Nations sanctions and end his chaotic war with the West. Presumbably the economic devestation he has caused in the country was a factor. As everything with Gaddafi, it was hardly a well orcestrated policy change. It seems to have begun with a visit by British Prime Minister Tony Blair (March 2004). It was the first such visit since Churchill visited during World War II. Gadaffi presumably to cover up the poor quakity health care at the hospital followed up the promising start at normalizing relations with trumped up charges against five Bulgarian nurses and a Palestinian doctor (May 2004). They were accused of deliberately infecting some 400 children with HIV anbd sentenced to death in a kangaroo trial. They were eventually freed under a deal with the European Union. The Europeans apparently agreed to an arms trade and a civilian nuclear cooperation agreement. Libya agreed to pay $35m to compensate victims of the bombing of a Berlin nightclub in 1986 (August 2004). Libya's oil induisstry after nationalization and continuing condlicts with the West had deteriorated badly. As it was the country's sole important source of income, Gadaffi deciced to offer concessions -- an auction of oil and gas exploration rights (January 2005). Thius meant that major energy cimpanies, includuing Amerucan comoanues, could return to Libya for the first time in more than 20 years. Rioting occurred in Libya. Again Gaddafi was not responsible. The rioters were upset with a Danish newspaper's cartoon depictions of the Prophet Muhammad (February 2006). It was part of a wave of protests by throughout the Muslim world. The riots were largest in Benghazi. Over 10 people were killed in clashes with the police. The United States restored full diplomatic ties with Libya (May 2006).
Libya now freed of sanctions and fully participating in the United Nations, takes over one-month rotating presidency of the United Nations Security Council (January 2008). It wa a sign that the country was no longer an international pariah. Libya and the United States US sign an agreement committing each side to compensate all victims of bombing attacks on the other's citizens (August 2008). Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi apologises to Libya for damage inflicted by Italy during the colonial era and signs a $5 billion dollar investment deal by way of compensation. Actually physical damage was limited and Italy greatly improved Libyan infrastructure. The Italians, however, were brutal and did kill large numbers of civilians. United Stares Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice visited Libya, basiucallyvending four decades of hostility (September 2008). This was highest-level U.S. visit to Libya since 1953. Ms. Rice stated that relations between the United States and Libya have entered a 'new phase'. Gaddafi wascelected chairman of the African Union by leaders meeting in Ethiopia (February 2009). He announced his vision of a United States of Africa even embracing the Caribbean wiuth its many islands populated witg ethnic Africans. Gaddafi made his first state visit to Italy, Libya's former colonial ruler and its main trading partner (June 2009). Convicted Lockerbie bomber Abdelbaset Ali al-Megrahi was freed from a Scottish gaol (August 2009). British authorities explauned that he was sick andcreleased on compassionate grounds and returned to Libya. A very healthy looking al-Megrahi was given a hero's receotion when he arrived hiome in Libya. The release caused a storm of controversy in Britain. Again a deal was lter revealed. Russia agreed to sell Libya weapons in a deal worth $1.8bn. The deal included fighter jets, tanks and air defence systems (January 2010). Gaddafi expeled the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) (June 2010). British Petroleum (BP) announced it is about to begin drilling off the Libyan coast. The European Union and Libya sign an agreement to slow down illegal migrationb(October 2010).
The international community may have been willing to make peace with Gadaffi, his own people were not. He had become deeply unpopular throughout the counbtry. He had alienated both the Westernized elites and the Islamicists. He remained in power because of his brutal and heavily armed security forces. Power was concentrated among members of Qaddafi’s inner circle, relatives and well-paid security chiefs. The latent opposition to Gadaffi exploded with the Arab Spring. Inspired by protests throughout the Arab world against authoritarian rulers, especially neighbouring Egypt and Tunisia. Violent protests broke out in Benghazi (February 2011). The demonsrrations spread to other cities, leading to escalating clashes between Gaddaffi's well-armed security forces and porly armed and organized anti-Gaddafi partisans. Gaddafi's security forces react brutally and large civilian casualties are reported. Gaddafi's police even go into the hospitals to arrest opponents that are only wounded. The rebels capture some towns and Gaddafi unleashed his air force on them, killing more civilians. The United States Security Council authorises a no-fly zone over Libya and air strikes to protect civilians (March 2011). NATO assumes command of the air operations. Even without the air force, however, Gaddafi has armored ground fiorces and artillery wjhichg the rebels lack and begins to recapture lost territory, conducting brutal reprisals on civilians. With the outbreal of a civil war, Western countries began to arm the rebels. President Obama ordered the distruction of a Libyan tank force moving against the rebels. This appears to havevbeen a turning point in the civil war. Withoutbhis heavy weapons, the weight iof numbers began to swing to the anti-Gaddafi forces.
The international Contact Group on Libya formally recognises the main opposition group, the National Transitional Council (NTC), as the legitimate government of Libya (July 2011). Gaddafoi's security forces begin to desert in large numbers. Gaddafi goes into hiding after rebels swarm takje his once fiormidable compound in Tripoli (August 2011). The African Union joins 60 countries which have recognised the NTC as the new legitimate Libyan gvernment (August-September). The rebels go n a hunt for Gaddafi. The rebels take his hometown Sirte. The once tightly protected dictator finally found hiding in drainage culverts, deserted by his security men. He is executed on the spot as he plads why he is beung treated so brutally (October 20). The NTC declares Libya to be officially 'liberated' (October 23). They announced plans to hold elections within 8 months. The NTC forces find the wudely despised Saif al-Islam, Gaddafi's fugitive son. He becomes the last key Gaddafi family member to be seized or killed.
Bearman, Jonathan. Qadhafi's Libya. London: Zed Books, 1986).
Bianco, Mirella. Margaret Lyle (transs). Gadafi: Voice from the Desert. (London: Longman, 1975).
Blundy, David andAndrew Lycett. Qaddafi and the Libyan Revolution (Boston and Toronto: Little Brown & Co, 1987).
Kawczynski, Daniel. Seeking Gaddafi: Libya, the West and the Arab Spring. (London: Biteback, 2011).
St. John, Ronald Bruce. Libya: From Colony to Revolution (revised ed.). Oxford: Oneworld:revised edition 2012).
Ward, Seth. "The Holocaust in North Africa," May 10, 1999.
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