Figure 1.-- The Government ordered the arrest of Chartist leaders who had threatened a general strike. Supporters marched on the prison at Newport, Monmouthshire, demanding their release. Troops called up to protect the prison killed 24 demobstrators and wounding 40 others. Here is a depiction od he disturbances at Newport. Depictions reveal the publishers sympathies. Anti-chartists depict mob action. Anti-chrtists depict the troops firing on the demonstraters. This is a depition of the Chartist assault on the Westgate Hotel (November 4, 1840). Like other historic images, the reader needs to consider factors such as how contemporary the image is and the political orientation of the artist or photographer and to what extent he is trying to make a political statement. This was a lithograpgh produced by James Flewitt Mullock. It was done over 50 years after the event (1893).
The final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (1815) left Europe in the hands of concervative monarhies who through the Congress of Vienna returned Europe to conservative monarchies. These monarchies repealed many of the reforms spread by the French Revolution. Britaian thanks to years of tradition culmninating in the Glorious Revolution (1688) had a limited monarchy and well-established parlimentary system. This provided the basis for the protection of both property rights and civil rights which enabled the rise of capitalism. Britain could, however, hardly be called a democracy. It was only after the Napoleonic Wars and especially with the aecession of Princess Victoria that Britain instituted a series of reforms which converted the country's parlimentary system into true democracy. Here Britain and Victoria had the emense gift of a young German aristocrat--Prince Albert. A major issue proved to be the the Corn Laws. The principal turning point was the Reform Act which finally did away with the rotton boroughs. It was at the same time that Britain abolished slavery in the Empire. One of the major political movements in Victorian Brirain was the Chartists. They failed, but had a huge impact in promoting reform. As a result of these moderate conservative reforms, Britain largely escaped the chaotic Revolutions of 1848 which swept Europe. And having learned from the American Revolution, the reform movement was allowed to develop in the Dominions as well.
Parlimentary System
The final defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo (1815) left Europe in the hands of concervative monarhies who through the Congress of Vienna returned Europe to conservative monarchies. These monarchies repealed many of the reforms spread by the French Revolution. Britaian thanks to years of tradition culmninating in the Glorious Revolution (1688) had a limited monarchy and well-established parlimentary system. This provided the basis for the protection of both property rights and civil rights which enabled the rise of capitalism. Britain could, however, hardly be called a democracy.
Corn Laws (1804- )
A major issue proved to be the the Corn Laws. Britain before the French Revolution imported grain from the Continent. The Industrial Revolution caused both a growth of population as well as well as expanding city populations, meaning people who did not grow their own food. The Napoleonic Wars and the Napoleonic System cut off Brirain from European grain imports. This increased grain prices and induced farmers to expand rain, primarily wheat production needed for bread. The onset of the French Revolution complicated Continental shipments, especially after Napoleon conquered much of Europe and introduced the Continental System. This cut Britain off from cheap European grain and caused price increases. British farmers responded to the higher prices by expanding wheat production. Climatic conditions meant that British wheat farmers As British wheat farmers were not as profuctive as Continental farmers. Thus they needed higher prices. Europe was the primary, but not the only source of imported grain. Aristocrats owned large areas of agricultural land. They and other land owners dominated Parliament. Thus they wanted import duries imposed on importted grain. The first Corn Law was passed (1804). (Corn at the time was a generic term for grain.) British landowners were converned that when the Napoleonic Wars ended, they would face unsustainable competition from cheap imported grain. And this is just what happened. Brirish farmers
were receiving 126s/6d a quarter (8 bushels) before Napoleon's disaster in Russia (1812). After Napoleon no longer controlled the Continent, prices had dropped to 65s/7d per quarter (1815). Landowners pushed in Parliament for protection. Parliament passed a law permitting the import of foreign wheat free of duty only when the domestic price rose to 80 shillings per quarter. While pushed by landowners, the law was very unpopular in London and other cities. The Government had to call out troops to defend Parliament from London mobs. Urban residents in Britain's fast-growing indudtrial cities were harned by the higher breas prices. Workers viewed saw the the Corn Laws as an example of how Parliament favored large landowners. The Corn Laws shold not be viewed as an issue which divided the rich and poor. Britain at the time as a result of The Indistrial Revolution was shifting from an economy domibated by landowners to one doiminaed by the industrial/mercantile class. Thus manufacturers also imposed the Corn Laws because they would lead to worker demands for increased wages. Unrest over the Corn Laws intensified when the graoin harvest failed (1816). The poor harvest caused bread prices to spike up. City woirkers demanded higher wages to pay for the rising food prices. Strikes and food riots occurred. Much of the unrest centered on Manchester, the heart of the industrial Midlands being created by the Industrial Revolution.
A group of middle-class moderate reformers began meeting at the home of John Potter. Working class radicals were also active. They organized a mass meetng at St. Peter's Field (August 16, 1819).
Catholic Emancipation
Great Reform Act (1832)
The nature of the anti-slavery movemnent changed with Psarliament's passage of he Great Reform Act (1832). Before this the unreformed Commons was dominated by a large numbers of MPs that represented small constiuences often called 'rotton boroughs'. This mean that carrying any neasure through Pasrliament did no so much mean mounfing a mass movement as it did convincing these MPs or people who could influence these MPs. This amounted to a very small group of people. As a result, the leadership of the anti-slavery movement was centered in a small London group, especially in Clapham. The Great Reform Act created a very different Commons. The constiuencies in the reformed Commoms came from much more trpresentative constituencies. And as aesult the MPs were more responsive to public opinion. Thus mass movements could for the first time have a major impsact on public policy. Future campaigns, including anti-slavery campaiigns would have to target the wider British public. The campaign would have to be conducted on a national basis and target constituencies throughout the country. Groups would have to be organized at the local level. And this in turn reduced the importance of central leadership.
Abolition of Slavery (1833)
Abolitionists finally secured the abolish slavery in all British possessions (1833). It was, however, a compromise measure. Thomas Fowell Buxton (1786-1845) succeded Wilberforce in leading the aboliion movement in the Commons. Buxton realized that there were MPs that were willing to vote for anolition, but only if the slave owners were compensated. For them the moral imperatitive was the santity of private property. Thus to achieve abolition, a comproise was necessary. This offended many abolitionists who saw abolitioin as the great moral crusade of the age and were unwilling to compromise. Thus Buxton saw that the issue could be converted into a financial one. He managed to pconvince the British Government to compensate the slave owners. The cost was £15 million. Many abolitionists chasrged that Buxton was rewarding the slave owners for their 'wickedness'. The planters also demanded that their freed slaves should work our the remainder of their libes as unpaid 'apprentices'. This would be another form of forced labor. Here the practical Buxton negotiated another compromise. Freed slaves above the age of 6 years would serve as apprentices, on an unpaid basis, for three quarters of the working day, over a period of 6 years. The ages and period were arrived at through a practcal calculation--it was the best deal he could get in the Commons. Buxton wisely took it. Without these compromises, there would have been no abolition in 1833. Full Anolition would have eventually come, nut who knows when. Whether it would have come by 1839 when all the slaves were fully emamcipated is highly questionable. Thd radical section of the Abolitionist movement who saw compromises with the planters as a comproimise with the Devil charged Buxton with selling out.
It was only after the Napoleonic Wars and especially with the aecession of Princess Victoria that Britain instituted a series of reforms which converted the country's parlimentary system into true democracy. Here Britain and Victoria had the emense gift of a young German aristocrat--Prince Albert. ueen Victoria was Britain's longest serving monarch. The generally uneventful reign of George IV 's brother, William IV (1830-37), was followed by that of Queen Victoria (1837-1901). Only 18 years when she came to the throne, innocent, self-centered and poorly educated--few expected very much. Victoria was, however, to oversee England at the height of its overseas power as well as an extraordinary explosion of technological advances which ushered Britain into the modern age. The British Empire was established in her reign, and it reached its greatest expanse under her. Perhaps even more importantly, major social and political reforms were initiated. The one major decision she made by herself was her choice of Albert of Saxe-Coburg for her husband. It was the love story of the 19th century. Victoria and Albert set the moral tone of the nation and helped shape Britain's emergence as a truly democratic nation. Victoria witnessed an extraordinary development of British power and influence. She and Albert changed how Britain's looked on their monarch. She became in many ways the grandmother of Europe, forging dynastic ties throughout the Continent. She also played a major role in influencing boys clothing around the world by the garments she selected for the young princes.
Chartist Movement (1838-48)
One of the major political movements in Victorian Brirain was the Chartists. The Chartists were considered radical reformers at the time. William Lovett drafted the "People's Charter" (1838). It was designed to address the remasining inequities remaining adter the passage of the Reform Act (1832). The Chartists demanded sic principal reforms: 1) universal male sufferage, 2) equal electoral districts, 3) abolition of the property requirement for Members of Parliament, 4) payment for M.P.s, 5) annual general elections, and 6) instituting a secret ballot. The Chartists collected 1.25 million signatures. This was presented to the House of Commons when ir came up for a vote (1839). It was soundly voted down by a vote of 235 to 46. The Government ordered the arrest of Chartist leaders who had threatened a general strike. Supporters marched on the prison at Newport, Monmouthshire, demanding their release. Troops called up to protect the prison killed 24 demobstrators and wounding 40 others. A second petition attracted 3 million signatures, butvwas also rejected by Parliament (1842). A third petition was also rejected (1848) ended the movement. While the Chartists failed, they had a huge impact in promoting reform.
Revolutions of 1848
As a result of these moderate conservative reforms, Britain largely escaped the chaotic Revolutions of 1848 which swept Europe. Revolution swept Europe in 1848. In Britain the Revolution of 1848 took the shape of the Chartist Movement. It looked fo a time like the Chartists might succeed in England. The struggle was conducted throughout the 1840s. But even before 1848 support for Chartism was declining. As Marx saw the differing interest of the middle class and working class would create differences that would make common action possible. The 10 Hour Act placated many. For the mass gathering on Kenington Green only 20,000 assembled. The Government preparing for the worst has assemed a security force of nearly 100,000. Even so the royal family decided it was prudent to leave London. Why did Britain prove less succetable to Revolution? Some have argued the Victorian penchant for constructive self criticism. [Wilson, pp. 113-120.] The Revolutions of 1848 did overturn some regimes, although most were soon restored. Onlt the French monarchy was permanretly overturned. The revolutions did demonstrate that that popular unrest could overthrow monarchial government.
Dominions
And having learned from the American Revolution, the reform movement was allowed to develop in the Dominions as well.
In the long histoy of the development of democracy, perhaps the most under covered story is that of woman's sufferage. Given that voting only became widespread in the 19th century (even in America and Britain), this rather narrows the historical record. The Sufragette Movement, the struggle for women's voting rights, in America and Britain as the two most poweful democracies were at the heart of the struggle. France lagged far behind. The Sufragette Movement became a national movement in Britain during the Victorian era. One might think that the young Queen was behind it, but in fact Queen Victoria did not support the idea of women voting. Women were not banned from voting by any statute until the Reform Act (1832) and the Municipal Corporations Act (1835). Ironically this was the same decade that a very young Victoria rose to the throne (1837). The teenage queen may not have been as sure of herself as would be needed for such a huge change in British govcrnance and soiciety, but nothing about her upbrining or very limited education would have even raised the idea in her head, clouded as it was with romantic mysticism. And at the time even most men could not bote in Britain. The struggle for the vote in Britain lagged somewhat behind that in America, although in historical terms the timeline is remarably similar. Most men had the vote by the Jacksonian Era (1830s) and states began granting women the right to vote (1860s). The suffeagette Movement began in England with the organizatiom of the National Society for Women's Suffrage (1872). The subsequent National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) prived even more influential. The Suffragette Movements was organized in Wales and other parts of the United Kingdom. It does seem strange given the prestige earned by Queen Viuctoria that most people opposed women's sufferage , including many women. After theturn-of-the century and the opassing of Queen Victoria public opinion began to shift in the women's favor. And with this came greater militancy on the part of young women. The Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU) was founded (1906) and launched a high profile militant campaign. World War I (1914-18) was the turning point in both Britain and America. Politics was susspended for the duration. And the Suffragettes ended their militant actions. Women's grouops did continue to quitely press their demands quitely in the back corridors of Parliment. Given the hash men had made of affairs leading to the War and the contribution women made to the war effirt, there was no longer any major resistance to women voting. Lloyd George's coalition government passed the Representation of the People Act (1918). This enfranchised all men and all women over the age of 30 years who met minimum property qualifications. This Act was notable not only for the inclusion of women. It was also the first to give nearly all men the right to vote. It extended voting rights to 5.6 million men and 8.4 million women. The women who helped neogiate the Act were criticised by young militants for the limited commitment to women's viting. But in fact once the principle was established, there would be no turning back. A Conservative government passed the Representation of the People (Equal Franchise) Act (1928). The Act gave women over the age of 21 years the right to vote on equal terms with men.
Parliament Act (1911)
Sources
Wilson, A.N. The Victorians (W.W. Norton: New York, 2003), 724p.
