Figure 1.--This detail of a Na Fianna Eireann group was taken in Cork during 1922 just before the Civil War which broke out over the Treaty with Britain. Because it's wartime they are wearing what uniform they had. They are also wearing the button badges. Con Markevcicz's uniform – the green jacket and saffron kilt was probably always only ideal – worn at parades in more peaceful times. Notably some of the boys are brandishing guns. We do not know which way these boys would have turned in the Civil War.

Ireland until 1918 was dominated by Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party. The Party had been divided by O'Shea Divorce Case in which Parnell had been named a co-resondant. The British Parliament after rejecting two Irish Home Rule bills finally passed Home Rule (1912). Unfortunately the passage of the Home Rule bill did not resolve the Irish question. It may well have done so earlier and had Parnell not been ruined. Passage in 1912, however, proved ineffectual. Implementation of Home Rule was delayed by World War I. The outbreak of the War world war I moved the political spotlight away from Home Rule. Britain had recruited substantial numbers of soldu=iers from Ireland. Public opinion was, however, incensed when British officials began drafting men. The Irish public turned sharply against Britain resulting in the Conscription Crisis. The Irish Parliamentary Party withdrew its MPs from the British Parliament in protest. Fighting to the suprise of the British did not begin in Ulster, but in Dublin. A small band of Irish Republicans led by Padraig Pearse and James Connolly staged an armed rebellion on Easter Day (1916). Sinn Féin and the Irish Parliamentary Party contested several by-elections (1917-18), but Sinn Féin won the general election held after the World War I Armistace (1918). The Sinn Féin MPs met TDs in the Mansion House in Dublin and referred to the new body as the Dáil Éireannor Assembly of Ireland. They proceeded to declare an Irish Republic with a parliamentary system. While the World War ended in 1918, the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the paramilitary army of the new Irish Republic, led by Michael Collins launched a guerrilla campaign against the British and their Irish supporters. Ireland became a battlefield. The war became variously known as the Irish War of Independence or Anglo-Irish War. The British Army and a pro-British paramilitary unit called the Black and Tans because of their uniforms attempted to maintain British rule. The war was fought with great brutality. The British Parliament tried to resolve the empasse in Ireland with the fourth Home Rule Act which was the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. The Act provided for the partition of Ireland into two separate states, Northern and Southern Ireland. The Republic Dáil narrowly voted to accept the Anglo-Irish Treaty brining the Irish Free State in existence. The supporters argued it was the best that could be achieved at the time and while not a republic, the Irish Free State was an Irish state. The Republicans rejected continuing ties with the British and the partition of the northern counties. Substantial elements in the Rerpublican movement continued to reject the Treaty. The major issue at the time was the continuing relationship with Britain an an oath of allegience to the monarchy. The opposition launched a civil war. Important figures were killed, including Michael Collins who had played such an important role in the War for Independence. Eamon de Valera who was the president of the Irish Republic emerged as a principal spokesman for the anti-Treaty forces. As a result, he lost influence in the Irish Free State. He left Sinn Féin and formed a new political party--Fianna F??? (1926). De Valera became became prime minister of the Irish Free State. Under his leadership the Irish Free State rewrote the constitution (1937). This severed most of the remaining links with the United Kingdom. The new state then declared itself a Republic in 1948-49 ending all links.

Na Fianna Éireann

One frustration of Irish nationalists was the lack of national consciouness among Irish boys. One effort to address this problem was Na Fianna Éireann. Irish nationalists founded Na Fianna Éireann in 1909 to help educate youth in Irish national ideas as a step in achieving independence. At the time Ireland was still under British rule as part of the United Kingdom. England ruled Ireland for about seven centuries. Ireland and Catholic enfranchisement had become contentious issues in British politics during 19th century. The Irish Potato Famine killed huge numbers of Ireland and driving large numbers to emmigrate, many to America (1845-50). of the 1850s had been a Holocaust for the Irish people, radicalizing some. Most Irish by the early 20th century seemed apathetic despite the dreadful economic conditions, high unemployment and wide-spread poverty. Many were despirited seeing no option to British rule. At the time there was no Irish youth organization. The Boys' Brigade which had been founded in Scotland had spread to England, but because of its Protestant orientation had little appeal to Irish boys--except in Ulster. The Boy Scouts founded by Baden Powell (1906) was a different matter. It had a more non-denominational origin. Irish nationalists were concerned about the impact of Scouting on Irish boys. The Scouts were a strongly patriotic group, emphasizing loyalty to Britain and the monary. Irish nationalists were concerned that this would further weaken the national identity of Irish boys. They wanted a program that would promote Irish identity and national feeling and to help boys envision a future independent Ireland.

Irish Parliamentary Party

Ireland until 1918 was dominated by Parnell's Irish Parliamentary Party. The Party had been divided by O'Shea Divorce Case in which Parnell had been named a co-resondant. The last general election to test the party, however, was heald in 1910.

Home Rule

The British Parliament after rejecting two Irish Home Rule bills finally passed Home Rule (1912). Unfortunately the passage of the Home Rule bill did not resolve the Irish question. It may well have done so earlier and had Parnell not been ruined. Passage in 1912, however, proved ineffectual. In particular the bill did not address the conflicting concerns of Irish nationalists and Irish unionists. The bill was passed by the Commons , but rejected by the House of Lords. By this time, however, the Lords no longer had the power to veto legislation. An adverse vote in the House of Lords could only delay the bill for 2 years. This delay proved to be disatrous. The Irish began to prepare for civil war. In the north, Protestants formed the Unionist ulster volunteers and the nationalist Catholics the Irish volunteers. Both groups began arming themselves by smuggling guns and ammunition. They openly drilled to demonstrate their resolution.

World War I (1914-18)

Implementation of Home Rule was delayed by World War I. The outbreak of the War world war I moved the political spotlight away from Home Rule. Both Unionist and Nationalist volunteer for the British army in died in large numbers in the trenches of northern France. Eventually the British were forced to introduce conscription. This was the first draft ever instituted by Britain. Large numbers of Irish youth were drafted and were killed or crippled in the horendous battles on the Western Front. Ireland entered the 20th Century as a largely loyal part of the United Kingdom. Nationalists were frustrated by the lack of support for independence. Surely World war I was an important factor affecting the attitude of the Irish toward Britsin. Britain had recruited substantial numbers of soldu=iers from Ireland. Public opinion was, however, incensed when British officials began drafting men. The Irish public turned sharply against Britain resulting in the Conscription Crisis. The Irish Parliamentary Party withdrew its MPs from the British Parliament in protest.

The Easter Rising (1916)

Fighting to the suprise of the British did not begin in Ulster, but in Dublin. A small band of Irish Republicans led by Padraig Pearse and James Connolly staged an armed rebellion on Easter Day (1916). The Rebels were not satisfied with Home Rule. They insisted that independence was a right and not England's to grant. The rebellion succeeded in seizing parts of central Dublin, but was quickly put down by the British Army after a day of furious fighting. The initial reaction in Ireland was not one of support. Important Irish politicians condemned the rising, including Irish Parliamentary Leader John Redmond. Some even saw the Rising as treasonous, coming at the time that many Irish had loved ones under fire in France. Irish officials and important newspapers like the Irish Independent advocated the execution of Pearse and the other Rising leaders. Thev initial reaction gradually changed in part because of the harsh British reaction. The execution of the Rising's leaders in several stages help turn Irish opinion. In addition a general British crack down caused much of Catholic Ireland side with the rebel cause.

Sinn Féin

Sinn Féin at the time of the Rising was a small monarchist party. The party was founded by Arthur Griffith who advocated akindof dual monarchy as earlier promoyed by O'Connell. He used as a model Austrua-Hungary. Sinn Féin was largely blamed for the Rising, which apparently was not the case. One of the Rising organizers, an American Eamon de Valera, escaped execution and upon release managed to infiltrate and take control of Sinn Féin. A split developed between the original monarchists and de Valera's republicans. The two factions reached a compromise at its Sinn Féin Árd Fhéis (party conference) (1917). The party would promote a republic and let the people vote to choose either a monarchy or republic. The republicans extracted a pledge the promise that a future king could not come from Britain's Royal Family. (Pearse during the Rising suggested Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany's youngest son, Prince Joachim as a possible King of Ireland. This statement about a monarchy probably caused the publix to identify Sinn Féin as respondible for the Riding.)

By-Elections (1917-18)

Sinn Féin and the Irish Parliamentary Party contested several by-elections (1917-18). The elections were acrimonious and inconclusive. In one election, a Sinn Féin party member held a gun up to an electiomn official's head when he was preparing to announce the victory of the Parlimentary Party's candidate and demanding that he count again. Support for Sinn Féin grew after the Conscription Crisis. The Parlimentary Part also opposed conscription, but their support for continued ties with Britain caused mant Irish voters to turn to Sinn Féin.

General Election (1918)

The British following the Armistace ending World War I (November 1918) held a general election (December 1918). This was the first general election since 1910. Historians dispute the election results. There were numerous irregularities, but Sinn Féin emerged with the vast majority of seats. Some historiand contend that Sinn Féin did not have the popular support to have obtained this result. Others contend that the British attempt to constript Irish soldiers at the end of the War was the decisive factor in the Sinn Féin victory. Once elected, however, Sinn Féin's new MPs refused to sit in British Parliament.

Dáil Éireann

The Sinn Féin MPs met TDs in the Mansion House in Dublin and referred to the new body as the Dáil Éireannor Assembly of Ireland. They proceeded to declare an Irish Republic with a parliamentary system. The prime minister was called Priomh Áire or President of the Dáil Éireann. De Valera served in this position (April 1919 to January 1922). The position was upgraded to a head of state and renamed to President of the Republic (August 1921).

Irish War of Independence/Anglo-Irish War (1919-21)

While the World War ended in 1918, the Irish Republican Army (IRA), the paramilitary army of the new Irish Republic, led by Michael Collins launched a guerrilla campaign against the British and their Irish supporters. Ireland became a battlefield. The war became variously known as the Irish War of Independence or Anglo-Irish War. The British Army and a pro-British paramilitary unit called the Black and Tans because of their uniforms attempted to maintain British rule. The war was fought with great brutality. The Black and Tans burned pro-IRA towns and tortured civilians. Even the British were horrifoed at Black and Tan actions. The IRA engaged in ethnic cleansing, especially the Protestant communities around Munster. Both sides engaged in assasinations and other killings. Britain saw Ireland gradually became became ungovernable. Both sides had their proponents. About half the population appears to have been uncommitted.

Home Rule Act (1920)

The British Parliament tried to resolve the empasse in Ireland with the fourth Home Rule Act which was the Government of Ireland Act, 1920. The Act provided for the partition of Ireland into two separate states, Northern and Southern Ireland. Each was to have its own Parliament. Each was to be separate from Great Britain but remain under the Crown. A Council of Ireland was to be established in the hope that the two states could resolve their differences and the Council evolve into a unified Irish parliament. Northern Ireland as envisioned in the Act was established, but the British had difficulty establishing a southern giverment. The Republic refused to become involved. The British did negotiate with the Republic. The British were offering Dominion status to Ireland. To obtain Unionist support the British were prepared to offer Ulser the right to opt out of the new Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann). If so, a bBoundary commission would deliniate the border. The Free State was to include the 26 southern counties of Leinster, Munster and Connacht as well as three counties in Ulster (Cavan, Monaghan and Donegal). The remaining six counties in Ulster (Antrim, Armagh, Derry, Down, Fermanagh and Tyrone) were created as Northern Ireland (1920) which remained part of the United Kingdom. The Unionists still held the north, and they would in turn rebel if Britain cast them loose. To avoid civil war, the government in late 1921 forced nationalist negotiators to accept partition. Britain finally granted independence to the Irish Free State.

Irish Free State

The Republic Dáil narrowly voted to accept the Anglo-Irish Treaty brining the Irish Free State in existence. The supporters argued it was the best that could be achieved at the time and while not a republic, the Irish Free State was an Irish state. The Republicans rejected continuing ties with the British and the partition of the northern counties. Michael Collins and W.T. Cosgrave led the creation of the new Irish Free State. They organized an army to replace the IRA para-militaries and a police force. The Civil Guard (An Garda Siochána) was created to replace the pro-British Royal Irish Constabulary. The Dublin Metropolitan Police later merged with the Garda.

Civil War (1922-23)

Substantial elements in the Rerpublican movement continued to reject the Treaty. The major issue at the time was the continuing relationship with Britain an an oath of allegience to the monarchy. The opposition launched a civil war. Important figures were killed, including Michael Collins who had played such an important role in the War for Independence. The anti-Treaty forces blew up the Irish Public Records Office, destroying an invaluable historic resource--one thousand years of Irish state and religious records. The Irish public strongly sided with the pro-treaty forces. As a result the Irish Free State was sustained. The Government executed IRA prisoners. Among them were author Robert Erskine Childers. The anti-Treaty forces carried out numerous assasinations. We note a photograpg of Fianna boys taken in Cork just before the start of the Civil War over the Treaty and can't help but wonder how thesev boys sided and what they did during the fighting.

Irish Republic

Eamon de Valera who was the president of the Irish Republic emerged as a principal spokesman for the anti-Treaty forces. As a result, he lost influence in the Irish Free State. He left Sinn Féin and formed a new political party--Fianna Fail (1926). The other main party being Fine Gael. De Valera became prime minister of the Irish Free State. Under his leadership the Irish Free State rewrote the constitution (1937). This severed most of the remaining links with the United Kingdom. The new state then declared itself a Republic in 1948-49 ending all constitutional links. Despite the break with England and the bitternes with English rule, English standards, especially English educational norms continued be very influential in Ireland, not only in Ulster, but the Republic as well. Sinn Fein in the 2000s is gaining a lot more support in the South now they have renounced violence. They have local councillors in many cities and won a European Parliment seat to represent Dublin (June 2004).

Ulster: The Troubles (1960s-90s)

Since World War II most violent conflicts have occurred in the Third World. An exception to this was the conflict between Catholics and Protestants. The conflict has been described as the last religious war in Europe. It also has the halmarks of the tribal conflicts of Africa. The conflict is rooted in the centuries old effort of England to control Ireland. A vicious civil war occurred in Ireland after World War, resulting in the creation of the Irish Free State which eventually became the Irish Republic. The majority Protestant province of Ulster or Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingsom. The Ulster Government treated Cathlolics as second-class citizens. A civil rights movement began in the 1960s, but unlike the American Civil Rights movement, the conflict in Ireland led by the Orish Republican Army turned violent, resulting in three decades of killings and reprisals. The British attempted to prevent the violence, but soon became seen as favoring the Protestants by most Catholics. The Irish seemed to have turned the corner on this and a peace process seems to have ended the violence, although there is still considerable ill will between the two communities.

Sources