Figure 1.--The history of Latin America since independence has been dominated by dictators. Liberal historians attemp to blame this on the United States and it isctrue that America has delt with dictators. Often left unsaid is that dictators emerged throughout Latin America from Mexico south to Chile and argentiba. They emerged before America energed as a major power and in countries in which America had any influence. It was the Portuguese and Spanish colonial culture that was the primary influence in generating dictators as it did in Portugal and Spain itself. The Dominican Republic was one of the many Latin countries which produced dictators. It did so in its early history before the United States was a najor influence, but in the 20th century the United States was a major power and did influence the country. And there were connections with Trujillo. The United States did not create Trujillo's dictatorship, but it tolerated it bcause of the stability it brought. Here we see long-term dictator Rafaél Trujillo with some of his many godchildren in 1958. The Dominican press caption is not clear but read something like, "El Generalísimo Trujillo acarieia a su ahijada Martha Milagres Sena, sostiene su madrina, senorita Yolanda Lomando Ramirez, en el act del bautizo de numorosas ninos, ayer en la Mañana. También figuran varias madrinas y madres." Which means something like, "Generalissimo Trujillo holding caresses his goddaughter Martha Milagres Sena, held by her godmother, Miss Yolanda Lomando Ramirez, in the act of baptising numerous children, yesterday in the morning. There are also several godmothers and mothers." The photograph is dated May 6, 1958.

The Dominicans declared a second republic under Pedro Santana (1844). Uprisings and Haitian attacks continued and Santana made the Dominican Republic a Spanish province to secure Spanish military aid (1861-65). President Buenaventura Báez found an economy devestated by war with the Haitians. He negotiated a treaty of annexation with the United States (1870). The U.S. Senate refused, however, to ratify the Treaty. A series of unstable governments followed until Ulíses Heureaux established a personal disctatorship. Further instability followed. President Wilson dispated marines to maintain order (1916). The Marines remain several years, finally dearting (1924). The Marines helped train a militry force to maintain order. Rafaél Leonides Trujillo Molina, a sergeant in the Dominican Army, overthrew President Horacio Vásquez (1930). He established another dictatorship that ruled the Dominican Republic for more than 30 years. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Dominican Republic Republic entered World War II, declaring war on Japan and Germany (Decemember 1941). Trujillo was assasinated (1961). Elections followed. Juan Bosch of the left-wing Dominican Revolutionary Party won the elections (1962). The right-wing military ousted President Bosch and set up a civilian triumvirate. Leftists refused to accept the new government and the country descended into chaos. U.S. President Lyndon Johnson dispached Marines again (1965). The United States helped negotiate a ceasefire and the two sides accepted Hector Garcia-Godoy as a provisional president to oversee new elections. Joaquin Balaguer, the right-wing candidate, defeated Bosch in a free election (1966). The U.S. and other foreign troops withdrew subsequently withdrew. Balaguer ruled the Dominican Republic for over 10 years. After it became apparent that he had lost the election for his fourth term, he ordered the Army to stop the ballot count (1978). President Jimmy Carter convinced him to accept his electoral defeat. Antonio Guzmán of the Dominican Revolutionary Party was declared the victor. Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated both Balaguer and Bosch (1982). Balaguer won the presidency again (1986) and dominated the country for another 10 years.

Independence (1844)

Haitian rule proved increasingly unpopular, Many whites had their land confiscated. And the Hitians imposed high taxes. Even many former slaves the Haitians freed began to oppose Haitain rule. The Haitains pursued explotive policies, drafted large numbers of Dominicans, but rarely paid them. They were forced to live off the land. The Hatians also confiscated church lands, associating the Catholic Church with the French oppresion that they endured. This only generated more resistance to the Haitians. Juan Pablo Duarte founded a secret society called La Trinitaria (1838). Their objective was an independent Santo Domingo without any foreign involvement. [Moya Pons, pp. 147–49.] Matías Ramón Mella and Francisco del Rosario Sánchez emerged as independence leaders, although not La Trinitaria founders. Duarte, Mella, and Sánchez are considered the three Founding Fathers of the Dominican Republic. The Trinitarios declared independence (1844). They were backed militarily by Pedro Santana, a wealthy cattle rancher in El Seibo. He became a general in the Army of the new Republic. As much of the Haitian Army in the Dominican Republic were Dominican concripts, there was minimal initial resistance to independence. The country's first Constitution was modeled on the United States Constitution.

Instability

The Trinitaria ousted the Haitians but were unable to achieve stable rule. Dominicans experienced tyranny, factionalism, and economic difficulties. There were constant changes of government. Losers were exiled. And the Haitins did not give up on controlling the Dominican Republic. Haitians invaded (1844, 1845–49, 1849–55, and 1855–56. [Matibag] Haiti did not recognize the Dominican Republic (until 1874). Santana and Buenaventura Báez were the primary political figures. They were arch enemies, but similar in their taste for arbitrary rule. They also reachged the conclusion that the country could not rule itself and attempted to have the country annexed. They promoted competing plans to have the country annexd. Santana favored Spain and Báez the United States.

Efforts to Secure Foreign Assistance (1861-70)

Uprisings and Haitian attacks continued. There was continued concern about another possible Haitian invasion. Santana imprisoned, intimidated, exiled, and executed many of his opponents. Political and economic problems continued. His answer was an agreement with Spin;s royalist Government which returned the Dominican Republic to a colony withinthe Spanish Empire. Some sources suggest a Spanish province. This was the only Latin American country to take this expedient. His major concern was apparently the Haitians. [Sagas] Santana's opponents, ouraged at the loss of indepedence rose in rebellion beginning the Restoration War (1863). Spain provide some military support to Santana. The resistance was led by Santiago Rodríguez, Benito Monción, and Gregorio Luperón, and others. Haiti fotr its part was fearful of a European powers on its border, provided refuge and supplies to the revolutionaries. The United States absorbed with the Civil War vigorously protested the Spanish action. France had also intrvened in Mexico. Fighting lasted 2 years. Finally after a revolt in Santo Domingo, Spain decided eventually to withdraw (1865). [Sagas] The Federal victory in the Civil war may have been a factor. Political strife continued. Warlords divided the country. Military revolts were endemic. The Government ran up huge foreign debts. President Buenaventura Báez inherited an economy devestated by Restoration War with the independence supporters and the Haitians. Báez's acted on his plan to join the country to the United States,He managed to negotiate a treaty of annexation with the United States (1870). Two successive American presidents had supported the idea. were supportive. U.S. President Grant wanted a naval base at Samaná he also supported a plan to resettle the newly freed slves who he played such a prominent role in freeing. [Waugh, p. 137.] The treaty included a U.S. payment of $1.5 million for Dominican debt relief. The U.S. Senate refused, however, to ratify the Treaty.

Instability

A series of unstable governments followed. The country began ammassing aubstantial foreign debt. and the nation amassed debt. Báez was over turned (1874), came back, and was finally toppled permnetly (1878). The old generation of leaders finally exited. Santana died (1864). Relative traquility was ahieved for the first time in the country's history (1880s).

Heureaux Dictatorship (1882-99)

Ulíses Heureaux established a personal disctatorship. 'Lilís' as the new Dominicans called thei new preident inherited a country that was largely at peace for the first timne in its history. He was a first very popular. One historian, however, describes him as 'a consummate dissembler'. he oversaw a massive borrowing campaign. Much of th money wentbinto his pockets or to pay for a grratly enlarged police force need for a police tte. Heureaux became an old-fashioned despot and his popularity gradually evaporated. [Langley, p. 20.] He was assainated (1899). Future president and had of the Red Party Ramón Arturo Cáceres Vasquez was responsible. Along with massive abuses, HeureauxThe brough tability to the Dominican Republic. This stability permitted some improvement in the Dominican economy. The sugar industry which had deterorated was modernized. [Hall] The country began attracting European immigrants. Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra replaced Heureaux (1899-1902). Jimenez was a principal Los Bolos (Blue Party or Jimenista) leader. They were opposed by the Los Coludos or Horacistas headed by Horacio Vásquez.

Further Instasbility (1902-06)

The stability that Heureaux brought about began to break down after the turn-of the 20th century. This began with the prsidency of Horacio Vásquez who had served as provisional president after Heureaux's assasination. The presidency becomes a blur of short term and ineffectual leaders. Horacio Vásquez and others briefly replaced Vasquez. Gen. Alejandro Woss y Gil seized power from Juan Isidro Jimenes (1903). Gil after only 6 months was removed by Carlos Felipe Morales. Admist all the misical chairs in Santo Doming, the country very quickly returned to the instability that had plagued it during the 19th century. Short-termed governments again became the norm. The power of the essentially leaderless central government was usurped by loval war lords (caudillos) in important parts of the country. And to make matters worse, the national government was bankrupted by Heureaux's massive debts. European creditor nations threatened to intervene. France was particularly aggressive. This was still the era of gunboat diplomacy. And the idea of debt forgiveness was unheard of in international discourse. Debts were expected to be paid. President Ramón Cáceres (1905-11) retiurned a modicum of stability, at least until he was assainated himself. .

American Intervention (1906-24)

European intervention in the Dominian Republic to ensure repayment of loans probably did not occur only because the United states which wa now the world's greatest industrial power with a substabtial High Seas fleet opposed European intervention. In the 19th century the Monroe Doctrine had little nite behinf it. This was no longer the case. The United States to help defuse the situation and avoid conflict with European powers began to intervene in Dominican affairs. Added tot he American concern was President Rooseevelt's decisionto begin building the Pnama Cana;. The United states did not want expaded European onvolvement in the Caribbean. Economic difficulties plagued the Dominican Republic. The country was unable to pay its massive foreign debts--massive of course in comparison to its GDP. European debtor countries threatened to intervene. In addition there were rising levels of disorder in the country. President Ramón Cáceres (1905-11) returned a modicum of stability. and he decided to deal with the debt issue by sihning a treaty with the United States y (1906). The United states took over the customs in exchange for purchasing the outstanding Dominican debt. Th Custom House throuhout the Caribbean and Central America was the principal sourc of government revenue. President Ramón Cáceres assasination added to the political turmoil (1911). The violemce threatened to become and outright civil war. The United States during the Taft and Wilson administrations attempted to medite among the warrig parties, but the disorder was only tempraily affected. A political deadlock was only sttled after Presudent Wilson issued an ultimatum tht the Dominicans choose a president or he would impose one on them 1914. Even the outbreak of world war I and the upswing in commodity prices did not improve the situation. The Dominicans reluctantly chose a provisional president. Larer in the year relatively free elections returned former president Juan Isidro Jimenes Pereyra to power. Jimenez made a good faith effort to achieve a national consensus with a broadly based unity government. Jimenes brought individuals from oppoition into his government. Others were, however, unwilling to compromise. His former Secretary of War Desiderio Arias began organizing a coup. President Wilson offered military aid to President Jimenes, but he resigned (1916). Given the War in Europe, Wilson was concerned about the security of the Canal. He dispated the Marines to maintain order. The Marines landed (May 16, 1916). Within 2 months they controlled the country. The Marines set up a Military Government (MG) overseen by Rear Admiral Harry Shepard Knapp. The U.S. action was widely criticized by Dominicans politicans. Political factions attempted to organize guerrilla campaigns with very limited succes. The miliitary government maintained most Dominican laws and institutions and managed to pacify the general population. The stability as well as the demand for commidities as aesult of the war revived the Dominican economy. The MG also reduced the nation's debt, built a road network that at last connected all regions of the country, reduced political violence, and created a professional National Guard to replace the warring partisan units. These were all accomplishments that no Dominican Government managed to achieve. The Marines remain several years, finally dearting after helping to set up a democratic government (1924).

Trujillo Dictatorship (1930-61)

The U.S. Military Government (MG) formally ended (October 1922). Elections were held (1924). The winner was former president Horacio Vásquez Lajara who had cooperated with the MG. He had briefly served as president (1902–03) before being deposed. He was inaugurated (July 13), and the last U.S. forces departed (September). Vásquez has one if the best records of all the Dominicn presidents with 6 years of honest, stable governance. Not only were political and civil rights observed and political violence subsided, but there was strong economic growth. y grew strongly, in a relatively peaceful atmosphere. As Presudent Vásquez Lajara was manuevering for another presiential term, Rafaél Leonides Trujillo Molina, a Lieutenant Colonel in the Dominican Army and Chief of Police. These positions gave hom the forece to seize power. He was also supporte by Carlos Rosario Peña, who headed the Civic Movement seeling to overthrow the government of Vásquez. Trujillo also cut a deal with rebel leader Rafael Estrella Ureña. Estrella would become a figurehead president and Trujillo would run for president in new elections. As Estrella's rebels drove toward Santo Domingo, Vásquez ordered Trujillo to stop them. Trujill instead feigned neutrality and ordered his men to remain in thwir barracks. Estrella's rebel force occupied the capital with virtually no resistance. Estrella without any legal justification was was proclaimed acting president with Trujillo confirmed as head of the police and the army (March 3). As agreed, Trujillo became the presidential nominee of the newly formed Coalición patriotica de los ciudadanos (Patriotic Coalition of Citizens) Estrella became his his running mate. The election was a fraud. Trujillo unleashed the Army and Police on a campihn of repression. Opposition igures were forced to withdraw. The result was preordained. He was elected elected president without any real oppostion (May) and was imagurated (August 16). He established another brutl dictatorship. Trujillo would go on to rule the country for three decades. He served as presidnt (1930-47 and then indirectly through urogates. He was perhaps the most corrupt Dominican rulers and certainly the most brutal. His rule was essentially gangster rule with murder and torture used to suppress any opposition to his authority. It is believd that thousands of Dominicans were murdered by his police thugs. After the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Dominican Republic Republic entered World War II, declaring war on Japan and Germany (Decemember 1941). There was substantial economic growth during the Trujillo's brutal regime. The Dominican people, however, unlike previous dictators did benefit, although because of the massive corruption not like should have. The wealth created went to the Trujillo family and his supporters. There was slome progress, most notably in healthcare, education, and transportation. Construction projects included hospitals and clinics, schools, roads, and harbors. Trujillo also instituted a housing construction program and a social security pension plan. He finally mangd to negotiated an undisputed border with Haiti (1935). He ended the 50-year customs agreement in 1941 rather than 1956 as had been planned. He paid off the naional debt (1947). As more Latin American countries moce toward demoracy, critism of Trujillo increased. First he used surogates, but the criticism mounted. The Organization of American States (OAS) called for its members to sever diplomatic ties with the Trujillp Administration. Trujillo was assasinated (1961). Elections followed.

American Intervention and the Struggle for Democracy (1961-65)

Juan Bosch of the left-wing Dominican Revolutionary Party won the elections that followed Trujullo's assasination (1962). It is generally seen as a reformist government. The Dominican military with many Trujillo loyalists, however, hated Bosch and his reformist policies. The military overthrew him after only a year (1963). A struggle for power and political chaos ensued. A range of groups, including a splintering military, vied for power. The military set up a gigure head civilian triumvirate. Bosch supporters and other leftists refused to accept the new military governmentThe idea of reinstating formr President Bosch ganred increasung support. Opposition groups organized and began attacking the military government. The country descended into violence and chaos. At the same time, the Johnson administration began to see the possibility of annoter Cuba, a second Communist state in the Caribbean. There was concern that Cuba was stocking the rising violence. President Johnson finally dispatched Marines (April 1965). The President explained that with Cuba in mind that he was acting to prevent another 'communist dictatorship' in the Caribbean. This of course was in the middle of the Cold War. Some 22,000 U.S. troops landed with orders to restore order. Other Latin American countries, members of the Organization of American States (OAS) contributed troops. The American action provoked protests in Latin America. There were charges of a return to Gunboat Diplomacy. Some in the United States watching America's expaning role in Vietnam were skeptical. many Americans rediculed Johnson's concern about the Communist danger. President Johnson provided American questioning reporters with lists of suspected communists. It was hurridly put together and included people who dead and others who were reformers and not Communists. The problem of course is that Fidel's 26 of July Movement had few Communists to begin with. The United States in just a few weeks retored order and negotiated a ceasefire. The two sides accepted Hector Garcia-Godoy as a provisional president to install a conservative, non-military government and oversee new elections.

Balaguer Era (1966-96)

Joaquin Balaguer, the right-wing candidate, defeated Bosch in a free election (1966). The U.S. and other foreign troops withdrew subsequently withdrew. Balaguer ruled the Dominican Republic for over 10 years. After it became apparent that he had lost the election for his fourth term, he ordered the Army to stop the ballot count (1978). President Jimmy Carter convinced him to accept his electoral defeat. Antonio Guzmán of the Dominican Revolutionary Party was declared the victor. Salvador Jorge Blanco of the Dominican Revolutionary Party defeated both Balaguer and Bosch (1982). The Government establishes to confront economic problems instututes a recovery program which includes an austerity program. Thiscresults in prices increases for food and gas/ This proves very unpopulr and riots brek out. The result wa to return Balaguer to power. He won the presidency again (1986) and dominated the country for another 10 years. A major economic downturn occurred (1988).

Democratic Rule

Leonel Fernández who grew up in the United States won more than 51 percent of the vote through an alliance with Balaguer (1996). The new president's agenda included the partial sale of some state-owned companies deemed ineficently run. Fernández won approval for endingseveral decades of isolationism and developing ties with other Caribbean countries, but he was made limited progress in confrontinh corruption or devloping the cojuntry to alleviate the country's continuing poverty. One study estimated that 60 percent of the country lived in poverty. Hipólito Mejía, center left candidate was elected 2000). Amajor issue was the popular discontent caused by power outages which the recently privatized electric industry was unavle to prevent. Former President Leonel Fernández defeated Mejía to regin the presidency (2004). The Dominican Republic joins a free trade agreement abd five Central American countries (CAFTA-DR) (2004). An economic crisis forced President to adopt unpopulat austerity measures (2006).

Sources

Hall, Michael R. Sugar and Power in the Dominican Republic (Greenwood Press: 2000).

Langley, Lester D. The Banana Wars (Rowman & Littlefield: 2002).

Matibag, Eugenio. Haitian-Dominican Counterpoint: Nation, State, and Race on Hispaniola (Macmillan: 2003).

Moya Pons, Frank. The Dominican Republic: A National History (Markus Wiener: 1998), 543p.

Sagas, Ernesto. "An Apparent Contradiction? – Popular Perceptions of Haiti and the Foreign Policy of the Dominican Republic". Sixth Annual Conference of the Haitian Studies Association, Boston, Massachusetts. Webster University. (October 14–15, 1994).

Waugh, Joan (2009). U.S. Grant: American Hero, American Myth (UNC Press: 2009).

Created: 9:40 AM 6/15/2011
Last updated: 12:53 AM 12/21/2015