Figure 1.--Here we have Captain Boni Apatou with the French colonial service in Guiana. He is pictured with with his extended family. They are a Maroon group, decended from runaway slaves that fled into the interior. Some Maroons were recently enslaved with a full understanding of African culture. Others were individuals who may have been born into slavery with no understanfing of African culture. The Captain's famly seem to have adopted an African village life style. It is unclear, however, to what extent they were influence by African or Amerindian culture, but they do not seem to have intermarriaed with the Amerrindians. We do not know when their ancestors fled into the interior. The photograph is undated. We would have guessed it was taken about 1910, but we have dated similar cards to 1925. Maroni was a river on the border betweem French Guiana and Surinam and apparenntly a small settlment along that river, but interestingly not very far into the intrior.

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was dominated by the Portuguese and British, but France was an important participant. The vast majority of the captued Africans were dlivered to Haiti, with lesser numbers to Martinique, and other colonies. In comparison smaller numbers were delivered to the relatively small number of plantations on Guadeloupe and French Guiana. The Caribbean islands becme emensely valuable with the development of sugar as cash crop. Sugar was produced on extrodinarly brutal plantations using slave labor. Gaudaloupe, Haiti (Saint-Domingue), and Marinique were the source of emense wealth--especially Haiti. The Dutch played a key role in the Brazilian/Caribbean sugar industry. The Dutch briefly seized the area from the Frnch. And it was the Dutch wjo brought the first slaves to what is now French Guiana (1654). The French rgained control if Guiana (1674). It is at this time that the serious agricultural development begans. The French when they returned also established plantations, but development was fairky limited compared to their main sugar island--Haiti. The Native americans an the easy of running away into the interio both complicated plantation agriculture in French Guiana. This was the situation just before the French Revolution (late-18th century). The French sugar as well as Cayenne pepper and other spices. As in the Caribbean islands, they They brought in several thousands captured Africans to work the plantations because the Native Americans could not be ucessfully enslaved. As in the Caribbean, the plantation/ slave system was very brutal. Small numbers of African slavees escaped into the interior and became known as maroons. Unlike the Caribbean, the French had no way of controlling this. Maroons could be hunted down on small islands with relative ease having no place to hide, but not in the vast South American intrior. The French Revolution resulted in abolotion of slavery, but not for several years (1794). France did not lose control of French Guinea as it did in Haiti. We are not sure about the security situation in French Guiana or to what extent abolition was actually implemented. But we believe that many slaves durung this period escaped their brutal oppressors fled from the plantations into the interior. We do not have any data about the numbers that did so. Those that did attempted to set up villages similar to the ones they had come from in Africa. Napoleon reintroduced slavery to revive the highly profitable sugar industry. This led to disaster in Haiti which had been the major producer. An entire French Army was virtually destroyed by the Haitian slave army and disease. Ominously Napoleon was planning to use the army to restablish the French presence in North America which could have fundamentally altered american history. French Guiana was of lesser importance. And unlike Haiti and the two smaller Frenh islands, many of the former slaves had disappeared into the interior and were essentually irrretrievable. It was easier to import new slaves from Africa. Plantations surrounded Caynee and up some of the more disease free rivers. This was the only real period of prosperity for the colony. The French Second Republic during its short existence finally abolished slavery in all French colonies and protectorates (April 27, 1848). It took some time for the news to reach French Guiana so Abolition Day in Guiana celebrated somewhat later (June 10). It was, however, not observed until decade later (2012).

French Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade

The Trans-Atlantic slave trade was dominated by the Portuguese and British. Most of the Portugese captives were delivered to Brazil. French slavers began participating in the developi slave trade (mid- 16th century). France became an important participant, but at a lower level. Rouen merchants secured a royl patent to participate in the slave trade (1634). French Finance Minister Colbert organized the French Xompany of the West Indies to pursue French interss, incluing ashareof the slave trade. Results weremixed as was asecond effort, Company of heSenegal (1673) which al failed. Other efforts failed, but there were French tradung posts operating. These poss were constantly changing hands in conflit with the British. The Brtish previled in the north alog West Africa, but the French did better further south in the Congo and Angolan regions. [Franklin, p. 51.] The Caribben or Soanish Main had at first been cintrolle by Spain, but the Spanish gradually lost any claim to exclusivuty (end of the 16th century). The Dutch, English, and French seized islands and fought each other for control of the islands. The vast majority of the Africans captured by the French were dlivered to Haiti, with lesser numbers to Martinique, Gudalupe and other colonies. In comparison smaller numbers were delivered to the relatively limited number and less productive plantations in French Guiana. The numbers were relatively limited until the development of the sugar industy.

Sugar Islands

The Caribbean islands becme emensely valuable with the development of sugar as cash crop. Sugar was produced on extrodinarly brutal plantations using slave labor. Gaudaloupe, Haiti (Saint-Domingue), and Marinique were the source of emense wealth--especially Haiti. It was sugar that first made slavery important. The Sugar Boom developed first in Brazil. The Dutch as part of the War for Independence/Dutch Portuguese War seized northeastern Brazil ad held it for several decades. When the Portuguese finally ousted them, they brought sugar technology to the Caribbean. The climate was perfect. Small islands that had once been of only minor importance, suddely became enormously valuable. The Europeans had, however, virtually exterminated the Native American populations (largely unintetionally through exposure to European diseases). The Spanish arrived first and decimated the Native Ameican population on first Hispaniola and then Puerto Rico and Cuba. They thus began inporting captive Africans. But the numbers of Africans were limited because the Caribbean islands did not produce very valuable crops. Sugar changed this. Suddenly small islands which no one cared much about became some of the most valuable realestate in the world. Sugar is, however, a labor intensive crop and workers in large numbers were needed to work the new sugar plantations. The Portuguese who had focused on the coast of Africa at first dominated the slave trade. This changed as the Dutch, French, and English also began setting up West African African trading posts and entered the slave trade. They also began seizing the Spanish colonies (Jamaica and western Hispsniola--Haiti) as well as islands the Spanish had bypassed (such as Barbados, Dominica, Guadelupe, Martinique, St. Kitts, and others). The colonial powers vied for control of the smaller islands. As the sugar economies developed, a massive demand for slaves was created. Haiti became enormously valuable to France.

Dutch Role

The Dutch who for aime controlled Brazil played a key role in the Brazilian/Caribbean sugar industry. The Dutch briefly seized the area from the French. And it was the Dutch who brought the first slaves to what is now French Guiana (1654).

French Agricultural Devlopment

The French rgained control if Guiana (1674). It is at this time that the serious agricultural development begans. The French when they returned also established plantations, but development was fairly limited compared to their main sugar island--Haiti. The Native Americans an the easy of running away into the interio both complicated plantation agriculture in French Guiana. This was the situation just before the French Revolution (late-18th century). The French sugar as well as Cayenne pepper and other spices. As in the Caribbean islands, they They brought in several thousands captured Africans to work the plantations because the Native Americans could not be ucessfully enslaved. they were affected by European diseases and hd no truble running off inti the interior. As in the Caribbean, the plantation/slave system was very brutal. Small numbers of African slavees escaped into the interior and became known as maroons. Unlike the Caribbean, the French had no way of controlling this. Maroons could be hunted down on small islands with relative ease having no place to hide, but not in the vast South American intrior.

French Revolution (1789)

The French Revolution erupted in Paris with the storming of the Bastile (July 1789). It had an stunning impact on the French West Indies as soon as the news rossed the Atlantic. The ideals of the Revolution stood in sharp contrast to the brutal realities of the slave system in the West Indies. Even before the NationaL Assembly acted, the situtation bgan to destabilize on Haiti. The National Assembly debated slavery, but in the end just acted on freed mulattos. The Assembly was conflicted. The settlers opposed abolition and the Revolutionary Government needed the sugar income to fight the conservative forces converging on France. In the end the French only abolished slavery 5 years after the Revolution began (1794). Unlike Haiti, there was no slave uprising in French Guiana, but many used the turmoil and eventual abolition to escape their brutal masters nd moved into the interior. We do not have any details on the security situation during the 1790s as the Revolution played its often chaotic course in the 1790s Not do we know how many of the slaves escaped into the interior. Those that did set up villages similar to the ones they had been taken from in Africa.

Maroons

After Napoeon' defeat and the restoration of the Bourbons, the situation stabilized for the French. The French retained Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana on the South American continent, all impprtant sugar-producing colonies, but a far cry from what was being priduced in Haiti. It was easier for the French to import new slaves from Africa than to track dowm the Maroons in the interior. Plantations surrounded Caynee and up some of the more disease free rivers. This was the only real period of prosperity for the colony. Following the Napoleinic era, the French became the most importnt European country still participating in the Atlantic slave trade. French slavers (n�griers) transported some 4,000 caotive Africans annually during the 1820s. Guadeloupe was the primary French market, absorbing 38,000 captive Africans (1814-30). Martinique was also important, abosiring 24,000 captives. The smaller agricultural sector took in some 14,000 captives. Some 80 Frennch slavers were active, most fomm Nantes. [Klein, p.198] The British Royal Navy and at times the flegling U.S. Navy attempted to end the slave trade through the West African Station. Without the support of the French Goverment, however, this was of limited effect. Finally King Louis-Philippe prohibited the slace trade (1830). The slave trade made a crime and punishment enforced. A treaty with Britain even allowed British naval searches of French vessels in certain cases. This significantly reduced th slave trade, but did not end it. Recently imported slaves from West Africa were continud to be found on Martinique and Guadeloupe and we think French Guiana. The French did not play an importnt role in the West African Station to end the slave trade. The French abolitionist movement was not as strong as the movement in Brutain and america. The French bebefitted economically from the slave trade and sugar production economically And French officials tended to see the Britih effort to stop the slave as an economic effort to garm France rather than a humnitarian effort.

Abolition (1848)

The European Revolutions of 1848 began in France depoed King Louis Philippe and brought the Second Rpublic to power. The Second Republic abolished slavery in all its colonies and protectorates (April 27, 1848). It took some time for the news to reach French Guiana so Abolition Day in Guiana celebrated somewhat later (June 10). It was, however, not observed until decade later (2012). Some 16,000 slaves left the French plantations. As a result, the colony's gricultural economy collapses. The French Governmnt then granted the former owners of France's 248,560 slaves compensation from a sum of $120 million francs. No onsudration was given to helping the firmer slaves become oroductive citizens. The impact of slvery was prolonged through the forced commitment of contract workers. A Gabonese contract worker, D'Chimbo, became notorious arond Cayenne deadly machete attacks (1860-62). He is now seen as hero for resstance to Frnch oppression. The slave trade did not end in 1848. Slavers continued to operate evading Royal Navy and American patrols. One estimate sugests that some 18.400 West Afrivan captives were transported to the French West Indoes (including French Guiana) during the 1850s-70s by Portuguee and Spanish (including Cuban) slavers. [Thomas]

Sources

Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery to Freedom: A History of NegroAmericans (Vintage Books: New York, 1967), 686p.

Klein, Herbert S. The Atlntic Slave Trade (Cambridge University Press: 1999), 234p.

Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade (Simon & Schuster: 1997).

Created: 3:35 PM 5/20/2017
Last updated: 5:23 AM 5/22/2017