Figure 1.--This photo was taken in 1915 in a Maroon village of Suriname. The Maroons are the descendants of runaway slaves that to vrying degrees restarted in America the lifestyle of their African ancestors. In Suriname they were commonly called Djukas or Bush/Forest Negros. This is the earliest photograph we have found. Except that they are wearing clothing this image could have been taken in the 16th century.

Given the numbers of Africans imported as slaves, Africans developed over time as the principal part of the population. Labor on a sugar plantation was very hard. Some African slaves like the Native Americans before them, escaped into the interior which was largely undeveloped. The terminology varied. Such escapees were more commonly known as Maroons in the Americas. It developed from the Spanish word 'cimarron', meaning fugitive or runaway. The literal meaning is 'living on mountaintops' from the Spanish word 'cima' meaning top or summit. The Maroons after running away formed independent settlements in the bush south of the coastal areas controlled by the Europeans. This also occurred in the Caribbean, but with the exception of Jamaica, the Europeans hunted them down without great dufficulty. The Maroons in Surinme called 'Djukas' or 'Bush Negroes'. Some would acquire weapons and attack plantations. They developed a greater threat than the Native Americans in part from their resistance to European disease. Even give the area involved, the Dutch could have defeated the Maroons, but it would have been a very costly operation. The damage they did just did not justify the massive military opetation that would have been necessary to defeat them. Unable to wipe out the Djukas, in part because of the large area of the interior, Governors Mauritius and Crommelin negotiated peace treaties with some of the tribes. Other tribes continued to stage raids. One of the most effective Maroon tribal leader was Boni (second half of the 18th century). Over time the Maroons created a kind of buffer zone between the Dutch planters, who settled land along the coast and some extent the main rivers, and the Native American tribes deeper in the interior. Some of the Maroons were recent enough arricals that they recrreated the African societies from which they camne. This was somewhat complicated by the fct that they came from different tribal geoups abd areas of Africa. Eventually in both Suriname and French Guiana they joined with Native Americans or founded several independent tribes, including the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), and the Matawai. Suriname Marions/Djukas began pressing for land rights (1990s).

Importances

Given the numbers of Africans imported as slaves, Africans thus developed over time as the principal part of the population. This includes the Africans and the Maroons as well as many Creoles. The Maroon population itself constitutes about 10 percent of the population.

Run-aways

Labor on a Caribbean-asrea sugar plantation was very hard. Some African slaves like the Native Americans before them, escaped into the interior which was largely undeveloped. This also occurred on the Caribbean islands, but with the exception of Jamaica, the Europeans on the small islands hunted them down without great difficulty. They are the decedents of captive Africans brought to the country in the 17th - early-19th as slaves to work the sugar plantations, but who escaped into the interior and established communities there along the major rivers.. Maroon in Suriname is a cultural term.

Terminology

: The terminology varied. Such escapees were more commonly known as Maroons in the Americas. It developed from the Spanish word 'cimarron', meaning fugitive or runaway. The literal meaning is 'living on mountaintops' from the Spanish word 'cima' meaning top or summit. The Maroons in Surinme called 'Djukas' or 'Bush/Forest Negroes'.

Social Structure

The Maroons after running away formed independent settlements in the bush south of the coastal areas controlled by the Europeans. Some of the Maroons were recent enough arrivals that they attempted to recrreated the African societies from which they came. This was somewhat complicated by the fct that they came from different tribal groups and areas of Africa.

Life Style

The Maroons had a traditionaal life style and culture in many ways more like the Amer-Indian population than the Creole population. This varied because they lived in isolation and not as one centralized group. The Surinamese Maroon culture has been described as 'one of the best-preserved pieces of African cultural heritage outside of Africa.' This is because many escaped from the plantations with their African identities still in place. Women play an important role in the economy. Maroon economy has been traditionally gender based activities. Women engaged in subsistence horticulture. The Maroons probaby had more agricultural knowledge than the indigenous Amer-Indians. The men pursued hunting and fishing. In recent years the Maroons have begin to assimilate into Surinasmese society. Men have begun seeking jobs in mining and urban areas, usally leaving their family behind if they are married. This means that they have assumed responsibility for managing the household. Some Maroons have moved to Paramaribo the capital and onlyb substantial city in Surinam. They usualloy work as laborers or in the bauxite enclaves. Growing numbers now live in and around Paramaribo. Some are moving eastward into adjacent French Guiana because of employment opportunities.

History

They were affected by colonial warfare, Dutch slave hunting operations, land grabs, natural disasters, and migration, Some maroons would acquire weapons and attack plantations. They developed a greater threat than the Native Americans in part from their resistance to European disease and greater vfamiliarity with Europeanb customs and ctechnology. Even give the area involved, the Dutch could have defeated the Maroons, but it would have been a very costly and dangerous operation. It was not that the Maroons were particularlty well arnmed, but in expedition into the interior carried with it possible accudents and contacting did=seases even before any armed actionj. In addition, the Maroons knew theterritory and culd retreat deeper into the interior--a very differentbsituation than on the small Caibbean islands. The damage the Maroons raiders did just did not justify the massive military opetation that would have been necessary to defeat them. It was easier and less expebsive just to but more captive Africans. Unable to wipe out the Djukas, in part because of the large area of the interior, Governors Mauritius and Crommelin negotiated peace treaties with some of the tribes. Other tribes continued to stage raids. One of the most effective Maroon tribal leader was Boni (second half of the 18th century). Over time the Maroons created a kind of buffer zone between the Dutch planters, who settled land along the coast and some extent the main rivers, and the Native American tribes deeper in the interior. Eventually in both Suriname and French Guiana they joined with Native Americans or founded several independent tribes, including the Saramaka, the Paramaka, the Ndyuka (Aukan), the Kwinti, the Aluku (Boni), and the Matawai. Suriname Maroos/Djukas began pressing for land rights (1990s).

Rivers

The rivers are very important, basically serving as highways. They run from the interior highlands north into the ocean. None rune east to west and thus travel in those directions is difficult. There are six Maroon groups, sometimes called tribes based along the rivers where they settled. The Aluku/Boni) settled along the Commewijne/Marowijne River. The Kwinti settled along the Coppename River. The Matawai settled along the Saramacca River. The Ndyuka/Aukan settled along the Marowijne and Commewijne Rivers. The Paamaka/Paramaccan) settled along the Marowijne River. And the Saamaka/Saramaccan settled along the Suriname River.

Social Organization

Despite the separation, the various Maroon communities developed overr are remarkably lines. The Maroon villages are located along Suriname rivers. Until the mid-19th century, the Maroons could not have permanent villages on the rivers because that would have made them vulnerable to Dutch slave catching operations. Villages today or located on the rivers, but can only be accessed by canoes or shallow draft boats. There are no roads into the interior. The villages tend to be about 100-200 people. Each Maroon group except the Kwinti is organized a around a leader called the 'granman' meaning the village paramount chief. The granman overseas a kind of councilmof villge elders called kapiteins (captains) who lead clans or family groups. The granman and kapiteins are supported by basias (heralds or monitors) who provide social control. This is largely governed on thev bassis of religious principles. Maroon society traces descent through the female line. The central group of a village consists of the descendants of an ancestral mother.

Culture

The Maroons over time have developed a rich, destinctive cukture. Religion isvery imprtant and has hany traditional African elements. There casre oracles and involves the veneration of African ancestors and spirits. ASs ca result bof missinary work, many of the Maroons have been Chruitianized in recent years. Traditional Maroon life ivolves a omplex web of cults and shrines which serve as focal points for groups of dispersed kinfolk. There are many skillful artisanss who specialize in wood cfarving. They were a ptre-literate society with a strong performance and oratory tradition.

Language

As a result of the separation along the different rivers for the most part without connections are different forest creole languages developed, but with many common words. They all have the same base, the creole that developed on the sugar plantations. Once they moved into he interior, differences developed which remain to his day. Because of the separation and isolation there are different Forest Creole languages. This includes Ndyuka, Saramaccan, and Kwinti. They are a varying mixture of West African languages, Dutch, and English. I think this is because there were escapees from both Dutch and English plantations. French does not appear to have been a part of these creole languages in Suriname. As the slaves escaped at different times, this also was a factor affecting the presence of the African languages.

Created: 5:12 AM 8/24/2012
Last updated: 4:17 AM 2/26/2024