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Quechua-speaking tribes inhabited the northern region of what is now Chile. Araucanian tribes dominated central Chile. The Inca came to dominte much of Chile, but were resisted by the fierce Araucanian (Mapuche) tribes who prevented the Inca from moving further south. At stake was Chile's fertile central valley south of modern Santiago. Chile did not have the allure of Mexico and Peru as there were no civilized tribes with hordes of gold. Many of the early Spanish settlers were from Andalucia. Settlement was concentrated in central Chile rather than the inhospitable, arid north. The central valley of Chile had a pleasant climate and fertile soil. Chile as a Spanish colony was a Captincy General part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was dominated by large pastoral holdings. The south remained controlled by the Mapuche until the 19th century. The Chileans persued independence during the Napoleonic Wars. They declared independence (1810). Independence resulted in a period of instability. The Royalists prevailed at the Rancagua (1814) and the Spanish managed to restore control. This led to an invasion by a mixed Argentinian and Chilean force which defeated the Spanish roylist army at Maipu (1818). Boundary desputes emerged with Bolivia and Peru in the north leading to the War of the Pacific. Chile until the War of the Pacific was alargely agricultural country with only limited foreign trade. The nitrate and copper mines significantly diversified the economy. The TransAndine Railway was built. The Chilean economy became integrated into the world economy and impacted by changes in workd prices. Chile developed a multi-party, parliamentary system after the War of the Pacific, but the parties were dominated by upper-class interests, especially landowners and businessmen.
Quechua-speaking tribes inhabited the northern region of what is now Chile. Araucanian tribes (the Mapuche) dominated central Chile. The Inca came to dominte much of Chile, but were resisted by the fierce Araucanian tribes who prevented the Inca from moving further south. At stake was Chile's fertile central valley south of modern Santiago. The Araucanian tribes now known as the Mapuche lived in scattered farming villages throughout the Central Valley. There was a much wider settlement oif tribes with cultural and linhuistic ties ans a trading network. There was, however, no central authority like the Inca. Each settlement had a cacique or chief, few of which had amy authority beyond a single village. The Mapuche cultivated corn (maize), beans, squash, potatoes, chili peppers, and other vegetables which had been develped by the more advanced civilizations to the north. The Mapuche fished, hunted, and kept home guinea pigs for meat. Llamas were used as pack animals and as a source of wool. Wealth was assessed by the size of llama herds. They successfully resisted the Inca and as a result there was no tradition of municipal forced labor.
The Spanish after conquering the Inca in Peru began to move south into Chile. The First Spanish expedition commnded by Almagro was defeated by a combination of the northern deserts and the Mapuche in the south (1536). Valdivia led a susubsequent expedition. Their first settlements were Santiago (1541) and Concepcion (1550). The Spanish settlers had to face the same resistance the Inca faced--the Mapuche. The less civilized Mapuche proved less vulnerable to Spanish arms than the Inca. The Spanish War with the Mapuche continued on and off again fot 350 years into the mid-19th century. The Mapuche became the only Indo-American trible to sucessfully resist the Spanish. A major factor in the eventual defeat of the Mapuche was European diseases which decimated their population.
The Captaincy General of Chile was created by the Crown of Castile as were all New World possesions. The Captaincy General of Chile was first known as New Extremadura (a name subsequently given to a part of Mexico) and then as Indian Flanders. The Captaincy was a part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. Chile never acquired the status of a viceroyalty and was instead classified as a captaincy general. This was the term used for waring territories. It was ruled by a military officer and not a nobleman as erre chosen for viceroys. Chile did not have the allure of Mexico and Peru as there were no civilized tribes with large qiantities of precious metals. It was on the perifery of the Soamish Empire and has no higely valuable resources. Many of the early Spanish settlers were from Andalucia. Settlement was concentrated in central Chile rather than the inhospitable, arid north. The central valley of Chile had a pleasant climate and fertile soil. Chile as a Spanish colony was a Captincy General part of the Viceroyalty of Peru. It was dominated by large pastoral holdings. The south remained largely controlled by the Araucanians until the 19th century. The colonial economy was almost entirely agricultural. The crops include cereals, vegetables, and fruits. And they raised livestock. Their harvests were almost entirely consumed locally. This meant that there was no real revenue raised by the colony. Mapuche resisted forced labor. Unlike the rest of the Spanish Empire, the settlers had to perform agicultural labort thenselves. Chile's menedral wealth would not be decelioeduntil indeoendence in the 19th century. At the end of the 16th century there were no more than 5,000 Spanish settlers in all of the colony. Chile was was a 'deficit area' of the Empire. The Spanish Crown had to actually finamce cilonial operations and the expense of maintaining officials in Santiago and support military forces on the Mapuche frontier. This did not change until Spanish officials relaxed trade restrictions (late-18th century). The Spanish population expanded only slowly: mid-17th century (0.1 million) and mid-18th century (0.5 million). The population finally crossed the 1 million mark (only about 1830), after independence. Chile was largely controlled by crillolos (Chilean born people of mostly Spanish ancestry). The upperclass owned large estates in the highly productive Central Valley.
The Chileans persued independence during the Napoleonic Wars. They declared independence (1810). Independence resulted in a period of instability. The independence movement was led by Juan Martínez de Rosas, Bernardo O'Higgans, and Josá Miguel Carrera. The Royalists prevailed at the Rancagua (1814) and the Spanish managed to restore control. This led to an invasion by a mixed Argentinian and Chilean force under Jose de San Martin and Bernardo O'Higgins which crossed the Andes through Uspallata Pass. They defeated the Spanish roylist army at Maipu (1818).
O'Higgins became Chile's the first president of the new Chilean republic. The pre-Indeopemndence colonial aristocracy and the clergy both supported the Crown during the war of independence and as aeslt were largely decredoted. Thus under O'Higgins, the small intelectual class and the creoloe landowners who had support independence became very influential. They formed the early governments and crafted the Constitution (1830). This would be the constitution under which parlimentary democracy would develop. The European (mostly Spanish population) was concentrated in the region of central Chile between Concepcion and Santiago. There was little Spanish settlement in the cold south or the arid north. Significant change began in the late-19th century. European immigration increased and from countries other than Spain. In addition, European investment financed mining opeations opening up the development of the arid north.
Boundary desputes emerged with Bolivia and Peru in the north. As Peru, Alto (Peru), and Chile were for a long period all part of the Viceroyalty of Peru, there was no need to carefully delinit borders, especially in the Atacma Desert which was though to be largely worthless territory. The discovery of mineral resources caned this. And as independent countries, defined national frontiers were needed. Chile fought a war with Bolivia and Peru (1879-84). Chile won both land and sea campaigns and occupied Lima. Peru lost its extreme south Tarapaca district and Bolivia its western outlet to the Pacific, leaving it land locked. This left Chile in control of the desolate, but mineral rich (nitrate and copper) Atacama Desert. It also left the Tacna-Arica issue unresolved which complicated relations with Peru and Bolivia through much of the 20th century.
Chile's foundational groups were the indigenous Mapuche people and the Spanish conquistadores that arrived (16th century). Chile's geographic location is a long way from from Europe making it one of the most difficult Latin American country for Europeans to reach--especially before the Panama Canal was opened (1914). As a result, the massive immigrant flow experienced by Canada, the United States, Brazil and Argentina did not reach Chile. The indigenous Mapuche people as with indigenous groups in Argentina faced a war of extermination. The primary immigrants during the colonial period were Spanish. Here Extremadura was especially important. There were also many Basques who also included people from Spain as well as some from France. After the Revolution (early 19th century) there was a general desire to 'whiten' the population, a policy that occurred throughout Latin America, but not often discussed today. This was reflected in the Law of Selective Immigration (1845). The Chilean Government wanted to attract people of a medium social/high cultural level to colonize the lightly populated southern regions of Chile with mostly Mapuche populations with a focus on the Central Valley between Valdivia and Puerto Montt. The Germans left a major cultural and ethnic imprint there. While there were no massive waves of European migrants, there was a stead flow of Spanish as well as British, French, German, and Italian immigrants. Following the failure of liberal revolutions in Europe, a wave of German emigrants flowed into the United States and to a lesser extent Latin America. Some arrived in Chile. This was the origin of of the German-Chilean community. the German immigrants included German-speaking Swiss, Silesians, Alsatians and Austrians. One study claims that 0.5 million Chileans can trace their ancestry to German immigration. 【Dannemann】 The German numerical weight peaked (1940s-50s). Of all of those groups, the Germans appeared to have been most determined to retain their cultural identity. Even so they may have have been the most influential. Chileans has issues with the Americans because of American tendency to intervene, although that had little impact in the 19th century. There was also a tendency to view the Germans as a counter weight to the more established colonial powers (Britain and France). Also probably because of the German victory in the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), The Chileans turned to the Germans for assistance in modernizing their army after the War of the Pacific (1879-84). Imperial German personnel began training Chilean Army officers, establishing important contacts. The Chileans traveled to Germany for training. The influence can be seen in Chilean Army uniforms for a century. In the 20th century there was support for Germany in both World Wars. An offshoot of the NAZI Party was established in the German-Chilean community in the 1930s. Since World War II at he shift in immigration has made Chile a much more diverse country. Discontent among the Mapuche over mistreatment has continued.
The Baltimore Affirs actually occurred in Valpariso, Chile. This now as then is Chile's principal port. Agter the War of the Pacific and the decline of Callao in Peru, Valpariso has become the princioal port along the coast of South America. The bone-headed captain of the newly commissioned American proteded cruiser USS Baltimore was in port and allowed shore leave in the middle of a civil war between the presidental and congressional forces. Oresident José Manuel Balmaceda was accused of being a dictator and congress took up arms. Of course the thorsty, but totally non-political sailors, headed straight for the bars where they were attacked by congressional forces. Two were killed. Now the general complaint about America is interfernence in Latin American affairs. Actually Baltimore was in Valpariso because it was ordered to prevent arms purchased by the congressional forces in San Farancisoo from reaching Chile--essentially to avoid interfering. Of course the comgressional partisans were upser which is why they attacked the sailors. What could have been a minor isolated incident a majot incident by the American press. The incident very easily could have resulted in a war between America and Chile. [Goldberg] Ironically Fighting Bon Evans, a U.S. Navy commander helped calm the situation. Evans woild return to Valparoso as the commanfer of the Great White Fleet (1908).
Chile fought an 8 month civil war (1891). Itvis also sometimes called the Revolutuin of 1891.
The contending forces were the President and Congress. Serius differenves often occur between presidents and legislatives bodies, butv rarely dies outrufgt war brean out. his time itvdid because the Army backed the president and the navy bacjked the Condress. It is also unsual for a navy to preail over an army, but Chile's geography is un usual, with little inland territiry. An army is usually the dominant force. President José Manuel Balmaceda found himself unable to gain Congressional support for any of his miniters (cabinet secrearies). So he began appointing them without Congressional approval. When the rmy was defeated, President Balmaceda committed suicide. This is seen by Chilean histoians as the end of the Liberal Republic and the beginning of the Parliamentary Era.
At the time of independence, the long Andean border with Argentina was not well defined. The two counties manahed to negotiate a border settlmebt without hostilities. The peaceful settlement was recognized by the erection of the Christ of the Andes.
Chile until the War of the Pacific was alargely agricultural country with only limited foreign trade. The nitrate and copper mines significantly diversified the economy. The TransAndine Railway was built. The Chilean economy became integrated into the world economy and impacted by changes in workd prices. Chile developed a multiparty, parliamentary system after the War of the Pacific, but the parties were dominated by upper-class interests, especially landowners and businessmen.
Chile when the War broke out in Europe declared itself neutral. Neutrality in Chile did not become a major issue as was the case in Argentina. Britin and German fought a naval engagement off Coronel early in the War. The greatest British violation of Chilean neutrality was attacking the German cruiser Dresden where it took refuge in Chilean waters at Juan Fernandez Island. The German U-boat attacks on cargo and passenger ships was, however, a far greater violation and Chile was dependent on foreign trade. The Chilean Government expressed concern when Germany announced unrestricted submarine warfare, There were some pro-Allied demonstrations in important cities. The Chilean Government warned Germany that as long as Chilean ships were not attacked, diplomatic relations could continue. Leading Chileans saw neutrality as an important aspect of Chilean diplomacy and "an essential step toward creating a bloc of truly independent South American nations capable of standing up to the United States in hemispheric relations." There was in Chilean neutrality among other factors a combination of anti-American and pro-German sentiment. A united South American front on the War did not develop. Except for Argentina, Chile was largely isolated. Chilean diplomacy was furthur complicated when Peru and Bolivia responded to Wilson's call for an Inter-American anti-submarine solidarity. Peru and Bolivia of course fought the War of the Pacific with Chikle and had lost territory. Chile begun to rethink its diplomacy and by the end of the War was making oertures to the United Sates. The Chilean Government took over German-owned nitrate plants in northern Chile. The Government seized the plants after the German Government sequestered Chilean government funds in German banks. Chile benefitted from the War, especially by the increased for stratehic materials, especially nitrates and copper. Mining companies expanded operations and exports soared. Although neutrl, because of the Allied naval blockade of Germany, almost all of these shipments went to the Allies. After the War, these shipments declined to normal levels. The result ws soaring unemployment. This generated support for fire brand Luis Recabarren. He founded the Chilean Communist Party and was an admirer of the Russian Revolution. President Juan Luis Sanfuentes reactionary Government was confronted with urban rioting. Strikes wee supressed with bloodshed. This was the beginning of a class struggle in Chile. Unfounded rumors circulated that that German U-boats used Chile's Easter Island to resupply.
The military seized power (1924-25), but was quickly replaced by parlimentary rule. Socialist left-wing parties including the Communists began to grow in influence among the developing industrial working class and in academic circles. The conservative parties, however, continued to maintain control. The economy receiving American loans did well (1920s), but was affected by the the 1929) Wall Street Crash (1930s). This created support for the radical right and left. Gen. Carlos Ibáñez dominated Chilean politics for an extended period. He served as president (1927-31), but having considerable support within ghe military. he was able to influence the presidents at the time as government minister. Ibáñez would be elcted again after the War fir a second term. Alhough striongly inflencing Chilean politucs for three decades, he did not leave a sting impfruint, often fascilaring in policy directiions. He resisted the radical Nacistas (a group largely firmed by Chilean-Germans) he also failed to support even moderate reform proposals. His primary concern was law and order. The Communists grew in strength and the National Socialist Movement of Chile (Nacista Party) was founded by Jorge González von Marées (1900-62), the son of ethnic Germans, includin a German nobel woman (1932). Heas emukating what he was seeing in Germanyn at the time. A year before the outbreak of World War II, the Navistas staged an amateruish coup (September 1938). It was aimed at the liberal government of Arturo Alessandri Palma and sought to place Ibáñez back in power.
【Silva, pp. 134–136.】 The resukt was the Matanza del Seguro Obrero (social Security Massacre) wher all the fighters participating in the coup were executed by the Carabineros (Police). It was such a feable effort that the Carabineros did not need to call out the Army. The main result was that many Chileans began to questiin the loyalty of the German community.
Chile was neutral during World War I and the scene of a notable surface naval battle. After the War a period of considerable political turmoil ensued. A liberal government led by Radical Party leader Pedro Aguirre Cerda as president was elected through a coalition of democratic groups, a popular front (1938). He launched a New Deal-like program to deal with the effects of the Depression, but was largely undone by a devastating earthquakewhich killed about 28,000 people and did extensive propert damage (1939). Fascist ideas gained some popularity in the 1930s and not just among the German immigrant community. World War II broke out the same year. There was no repeat of naval battles off Chile in World war II. The Southern Cone countries of Argentina and Chile were where the Axis found a degree of support, mostly because of German amd Itlian immigrant populations, mostly Germans in Chile. Germans in Chile interfered domestic affairs, engaged in espionage, and distributing propaganda. The Germans focused on anti-Semitism and avoided discussions of how NAZI racial theroists ranked Chileans and other Latin Americans--something that is still not widely understood in the region. Chile with its influential German minority did not join with most of the other Latin American nations after Pearl Harbor (December 1941) and break relations or declare war on Axis countries. There were both pro-Allied and pro-Axis elements. Public opinion began to change when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941). This wa not the case earlier because the Soviers began the War as NAZI allies and theSoviets orderedCommunist partoes throughout the world to tone down anti-NAZI rhetoric and to critize the Allies. There was pro-Soviet sentiment within the Chilean labor movement. The British naval blockade on Germany and Italy and the subsequent Americna blokade on Japan left the Chilean dependent on Allied markets, esoecially the United States. Chile had a small, but inflential German minority with supported a NAZI spy ring. It was centered in the important port of Valpariso near Santiago. They were able to supply the German Navy and its U-boats with valuable information on Allied shipping. The Popular Front under Radical Party candidate Juan Antonio Ríos was elected president (1942). He oversaw a moderate government. Ríos led his country into a pro-Allies position. The NAZI spy ring was finally exposed (1943). The Rios Government finally entering the war on the side of the United States when it was clear that the NAZI swould not survive the war and be totally defeated (1944). Chile did not actively participate in the War, but raw material exports like copper aided the Allied war effort. Both Argentina and Chile received minimal military aid from the United States, because for most of the war neither broke relations with the Axis powers. This caused concern in Chile because Bolivia and Peru which severed relations with the Axis did receive Lend Lease aid and had claims on territory seized from them in the 19th century War of the Pacific. Fascism had had some appeal in the 1930s, but this shifted during the war with the Communist Party emerged as one of the strongest political organizations in Chile. The country became a charter member of the United Nations (June 1945). A few NAZIssought refuge in Chile after the war.
Carlos Ibáñez del Campo was elected predident again (1952-58). He resorted to dictatorial powers. He was followed by Jorge Alessandri (1958-64). The next president was Eduardo Frei (1964-70). Frei's Democratic Reform Party won a parlimentry election (1965). This was the first oarty to win a clear majority in the lower chamber for a century. Frei used this majority to push through a major land reform program (1967).
A presidential candidate of the left-wing coalition, Salvador Allende, finally won an election (1970).
He instituted a program long demanded by the Socialist parties--nationalizing the mines, industries, and public services. The result was economic decline. The Chilean military feared that he was leading Chile toward a Castro-style dictatofship. Allende has become a virtual saint of the Chilean left, so this is a difficult subject to discover.
The military deposed Allende who was killed defending the National Palace (September 1973). The Military led by General Augusto Pinochet ruled Chile for 16 years. The military brutally repressed discent. Opposition political leades were exled. Several thousands disappeared, many of them university students. Pinochet also ushered in an era of free-market economics which made Chile one of the economically most prosperous countries in Latin America.
The military finally allowed democratic elections (1989). Patricio Alwin Azocar was elected in a free, democratic election.
Goldbrrg, Joyce. Baltimore (University of Nebraska Press:1986), 207p.
Dannemann, Victoria. "Alemanes en Chile: entre el pasado colono y el presente empresarial" Deustche-Welle.
Silva, J. Pablo "La matanza del Seguro Obrero (5 de septiembre de 1938) (review)". The Americas. (2010) Vol. 67, No. 1, pp. 134–36.
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