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China's experiece in the 20th century was the most turbulant of any great power. It began with the Boxer Rebellion (1900) which exposed the weakeness of decadent Manchu dynasty. China had viewed itself as the greatest world power and other countries of little importance. Growing European power by the 19th century had enforced many indignaties on China, begnning in particular with the Opium Wars. European countries enforced inequitable treties and carved out treaty ports. Japan even seized Formosa island (modern Taiwan) (1895). There were two major responses. One was a desire by progressive reformers to modernize China by adopting modern technology and institutions along the lines being persued in Japan. The other was a desire to drive out all foreign influence and maintain traditional culture. Dowager Empress Cixi suppressed the progressive reformers . Unable to resist the European powers openly, Emperess Cixi secretly promoted the traditionalist faction. The most important traditionalist faction was the Society of Harmonious Fists which in the West became known as the Boxers. The Boxers began attacking foreigners, especially isolated foreigners living outside the treaty ports. Here the most vuunerable were the foreign missionaries living among the Chinese. The missionaries were especially hated by the Boxers. Gradually attacks on foreigners and Chinese associates with them increased, especially in north China. Open fighting began when a British force moving to Peking to protect the forign community there came under fire--something the regular Chinese Army was afraid to do. Full scale revolt broke out in Peking. The Boxers killed the German ambassador and beseigned the foreign embassies. A German reader writes, "In my youth, about 1947, I got a childrens' book about the boxers. The history of a German boy was the central figure who was, by chance, at the home of his Chinese nanny on the day the ambassador was killed. Some how they managed to get back to the saftey of one of the European embassies. Attacks on foreigners and foreign property occurred all over north China. The foreign legations in Peking were beseiged by the Boxers for 3 months. Six foreign governments (America, Austria-Hungary?, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, and Japan) organized a relief mission. The European rescue force managed to reach Peking where the besieged international community had run out of amunition and food. The reparations and concessions imposed on China under the Peking Protocol descredited the Manchus and led to the overthrow of the imperial system which had governed China for millenia (1912).
China's experiece in the 20th century was the most turbulant of any great power. It began with the Boxer Rebellion (1900) which exposed the weakeness of decadent Manchu dynasty. China had viewed itself as the greatest world power and other countries of little importance. Growing European power by the 19th century had enforced many indignaties on China, begnning in particular with the Opium Wars. European countries enforced inequitable treties and carved out treaty ports. Japan even seized Formosa island (modern Taiwan) (1895). Al this was occuruing in a country whose people thought it the center of the world, the most advanced country on earth. And this was in many ways the case. Chinese technology in mazny areas was ahead of Western technology until the 18th century. Even in the early 19th century. The Opium Wars, for example, occurred because the English could not produce goods the Chinese wanted in exchange for the porcelins, silks, and other goods wanted from China. WEestern technology and power shocked the Chimese in the 19th century.
Until the 19th century, Westerners were a rarity in China, restricted to a few coastal ports. The Opium Wars changed this. China was forced to tolerate foreigners who wished to enter and not just in a few treaty ports. All kinds of foreigners entered China. Merchants and traders for the most part remained primarily in coastal ports--the European treaty port enclaves. This was not the case for the missionries whi flocked to China with a desire to save souls they penetrated into the interior in plsces that foredigners had never before gone. They founded schools, the first real modern schools in China. Engineers also came to China towork on railway and mining projects. One such engineer was a young Herbert Hoover and his wife. And a diplomaztic community gew up in Beijing. And along wsith these Europeans were soldiers abd civil servants needed to admonister the treaty ports. The reaction to these fiorigners varied. Some Chinese were interested in hem and desired to learn from themand to work for them. Other Chinese were offended by the prsence of foreigners in China and their attitudes toward the Chinese. Many Europeans affected by racist attitudes loked down on the Chinese and sought to imsulate themselves from the Chinese as much as possible. This was not the case of the missionaries, but was the case of many, but certainly not all, merchsnts, civil servnts, and soldiers.
There were two major responses. One was a desire by progressive reformers to modernize China by adopting modern technology and institutions along the lines being persued in Japan. The other was a desire to drive out all foreign influence and maintain traditional culture.
The Dowager Empress was the most important and notorious cocubine in Chinese history. Emperor Hsieng-feng died in 1862. Their 6-year old son thus became emperor. Cixi was only 27 yeears old at the time, but began to rule China as regent. She managed to continue her rule eve after her son;s death, ruling as regent for nephews. Cixi suppressed the progressive reformers. She saw them as a threat, just like the foreigners. Here China stood in sharp contrast to Japan where the reformers rallied around the emperor. Unable to resist the European powers openly, Emperess Cixi secretly promoted the traditionalist faction.
The most important traditionalist faction was the Society of Harmonious Fists which in the West became known as the Boxers. The Boxers were influenced by the traditions of the White Lotus society. he White Lotus would again have an influence in the 1890s. The Boxers first appeared in northern China after the Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). The Boxers were a poorly organized group and essentially a highly superstious cult. They adopted absurd military principles. There was no central organization or leader and rather a collection of regional groups with different practices and beliefs. The one unifying belief was a hatred of foreigners and modernity. One unique aspect of the Boxers was public physical exercises. The exercises susposedly created a magical shield to deflect foreign bullets.
These exercises looked to Westerners like the training exercises prize fighters (boxers) used so they became known as Boxers in he West. The Boxers made no arrempt to acquire modern weapons. Rather they relied on magical spirits and traditional weapons lie swords, knives, and a range of other items to attack the foreigners. This worked against isolated ad unarmed missonaries. It would not against well-armed foreign military forces. The Boxers attracted a mixed group of adherents, including criminals, poverty striken rural peasants, and the illiterate and uneducated. Students who would play an important role in the 20th century, were not present among the Boxers. There were many youths. The Boxers unlike the Imperial Army had no real uniform. They did have some kind of identifing red ribbon. It was worn as an armband, sash, or waistcloth.
rule.
The Boxers began attacking foreigners or aspects of the foreign presence. The first Boxer attacks were on isolated unprotected targets. Railroads which used imported technology and financed by foreigners were popular targets. Another favorite target was especially isolated foreigners living outside the treaty ports. Here the most vuunerable were the foreign missionaries living among the Chinese. The missionaries were especially hated by the Boxers. The Boxers managed to kill about 230 missionaries and their families and burned churches. The Boxers also targeted Chinese Christian converts. Here no ones knows just how many Chinese Christins were killed. The nimbers probably are n the tens of thousands. Gradually attacks on foreigners and Chinese associates with them increased, especially in northern China. Open fighting began when a British force moving to Peking to protect the forign community there came under fire--something the regular Chinese Army was afraid to do.
Full scale revolt broke out in Peking. The Boxers killed the German ambassador and beseigned the foreign embassies. A German reader writes, "In my youth, about 1947, I got a childrens' book about the boxers. The history of a German boy was the central figure who was, by chance, at the home of his Chinese nanny on the day the ambassador was killed. Some how they managed to get back to the saftey of one of the European embassies. Attacks on foreigners and foreign property occurred all over north China. The foreign legations in Peking were beseiged by the Boxers for 3 months.
Two efforts by small colums of British troops were turned back by the Boxers and Imperial Army.
Eight foreign governments (America, Austria-Hungary, Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russia) organized a relief mission. The mission was an effective military force with modern arms. The international community organized a substantial force. British Lt-General Alfred Gaselee eventually commanded a force of 54,000. The largest component was Japanese troops (20,840). The force also included Russian (13,150), British (12,020), French (3,520), American (3,420), German (900), Italian (80), Austro-Hungarian (75), and anti-Boxer Chinese troops. The Intrnational Force set out from the cloeset forign treaty port of Tianjin and fought west toward Peking. About 70,000 Imperial troops and 50,000-100,000 Boxers resisted them, but did not fight pitched battles because of the Relif Mission's fire power. The largest bsattle was fought at Yangcun. The teraine and hot summer weather probved more of an obstacle than the Boxers. Boxers who were captured were often executed. The European rescue force managed to reach Peking where the besieged international community had run out of amunition and food (August 14, 1900). The Boxer Revolt crumbled after the Relief Mission reached the foreign embassies. The international mission looted Peking when they arrived. Their attentions turned to the the Forbidden City which they ransacked. The Empress Dowager reportedly fled the city dressed as a humble peasant.
The Dowager Emperess set up her court in Xian and sent Li Hongzhang for peace talks. He was a Qing/Manchu prince. There was little neotiation. The representatives of 11 foreign powers imposed the Protocol of 1901 or Boxer Protocol on China (September 7, 1901). For letting the Boxers get out of hand and in part using the Boxers, the foreign powers punished China for disrupting foreign economic and religious interests. China was forced to pay a stiff price for peace.
The Protocol imposed a penalty prescribed death or exile for the 12 Rebellion ringleaders. Actually many more Boxers were executed, often by beheading. An array punishments were designated for 119 provincial officials. The Imperial Government was required to suspend civil service exams for 5 years in the 45 districts in which the Boxers rose. The Protocol imposed a 450 million tael indemnity which had to be paid
yarly installments over the next 39 years (Computing interest and an unfavorable exchange rate imposed in the Protocal, the actual total ran closer to 980 million taels). The Protocol enlarged the Peking legation quarter which the Imperial Government found particularly insulting. The foreign powers essentially were given the run of the place and protected by a a permanent guard of their own. To atone for the deaths of two ministers (von Ketteler and Sugiyama), the Imperial Government had to send 'apology' delegations to Germany and Japan. The Imperial Government was forced to prohibit all anti-foreign organizations. Weapons imports were banned for 2 years. Military forts located between Peking and the sea had to be dismantled. The foreign powers were authorized to use their troops to monitor 12 routes into Peking. The reparations and concessions imposed on China under the Peking Protocol descredited the Manchus in the eyes of the Chinese people. The Emperess Dowger managed to return to the Forbidden Cirt a year later. The power of the imperial system and the Manchhus was, however, substantially broken. The Emperess managed to hang on another decade, but the imperial system was irevocanly broken. The Manchus were finally overthrown by Republican forces (1912). The United States was one of the countries that had participated in the relief mission. There were, however, no American treaty ports. The United States called for an expanded Open Door policy in the discussions following therelief mission. Secretary of State John Hay called for the open door to extend to all regions of China.
One of the first results of the Boxer Rebellion was the Russo-Japanese War. Both Japan and Russia committed forces to the international relief mission, but they had competing interests. After the Rebellion had been put down, the Russians refused to withdraw their forces from Manchuria. They had the Concession from the Imperial Chinese Government to build rail lines in Manchuria and thus were in a position to effectively exploit Chinese resources. And they refused to negotiate any kind of arangement with the Japanese the use of the lines an over exploiting Manchuria. The Japanese resonse was eventually a surprise attack on Port Arthur which launched the War (February 1904). The idea of an Asian country challenging a major European power startelled the world.
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