Figure 1.--One of the untold stories of World War II was the famine caused by the Jaoanese during their occupation of the Dutch Eas Indies (1942-45). Some 5 million Indonesians perished. This had nothing to do with the war. There was very liitle fighting in the DEI. It was entirely due to Japanese occupation policies. This has been largely covered up by the Indonesian Government and historins because the nationalist movemeent colaborated so closely with the Japanese and were thus innpart resopobsible. With the return of the Dutch and out break of the independence struggle after the war. There were renewed food shortages, this time as a result of the fighting and resultant economic disruptions. These little Indonesian girls are being fed at a Dutch refugee facility during February 1949. The oldergirl looks like she may be part of the Chinese minority. The press caption read, " Frightened, starving native childre eat rice and beans served on bits of paper at a reabilitation camp operated by the Dutch Government near Jokjakarta." The photograph was dated February 16, 1949.

Although the Japanese World War II occupation was disaterous for the Indonesian people, it was a turning point for the nationalist movement. The Nationalists for the first time were able to get a hold of arms. The Japanese tightly controlled political activity during their occupation. The Indonesians which had collaborated with the Japanese could see clearly see see that the Japanese had lost the War. They began preparing for the inevitable Japanese surrender and Indonesian independence. Sukarno and Hatta immediately after the Japanese surrender (August 1945) announced Indonesia independence. They thus became the founding fathers of the new nation. They promulgated a constitution for the new nation. Indonesia was the largest archipelago in the world, with over 17,000 islands, about 3,000 of which were inhabited. Despite the Japanese surrender in Tokyo, most of the DEI was still occupied by the Japanese. It would take some time for the Allies to move into the DEI and accept the Japanese surrender and even longer for Dutch colonial authorities and military forces to arrive. This gave the Indinesian nationalists precious time to organize. When the Dutch returned and tried to reestablish colonial rule, organized armed Indonesians resisted. The center of the resistance movement was Java. Nationalist groups launche a 4-year guerilla war on Java follwing the War. The Dutch were eventually forced to recognize an independent Indonesia (1949). Two interesting phenomenon followed independence which surprised both the Dutch and Indonesians who parted ways. . First the Dutch were surprised to learn that the loss of its valuable colony did not cause economic disaster, The Netherlandsactually became more prosperous without the DEI. Second, the Indonesians nationalist leaders imbued with anti-Western socialist theology expected an economic bonanza with independence. The new country, however, did not achieve economic prosperity by ousting the Dutch. Mismanagement, socialist policies, corruption, and authoritarian political rule left the Indonesians poor and underdeveloped despite their oil resources.

Nationalist Movement

The Dutch bregan to colonize the East Indies during an early period of European colonial expansion (16th century). Dutch colnil policy was explotive with little effort to educate Indonesians or prepare them to share in the local administration. Dutch authorities introduced the Ethical Policy (early 20th century). The program included the promotion of farming and limited health and educational services for Indonesians. The Dutch expanded infrastructure projecrs, including the construction of railways and roads and the development of inter-island shipping. The Ethical Policy has social implications, helping to create a small number of Western-educated Indonesians and a group of Indonesian entrepreneurs. These Indonesians began to compete with the Chinese community whichb had played a dominant role in commerce. The Dutch did not, however, succeed in gaoning the loyalty of the new educated Indonesian class that they had created. Rather the educated Indonesians became resentful of the limitations of the colonial regime. The first modern nationalist movement was Sarekat Islam (SI--Islamic Union) which was founded in 1912. SI rose out of the protective association formed by successful batik merchants. SI proved enormously successful and within onlya few years had a membership of more than 2 million Indonesians throughout the archipelago (1918). Dutch authorities at first tried to wirk with SI. They set up the Volksraad (People’s Council) as an advisory body (1916). The Volksraad members were selected from major groups of the population. They were allowed to deliberate and advice the Dutch colonial government. Dutch policies began to shift after World War I (1914-1918). Particularly important was an abortive Communist-led insurrection (1926-27). The Dutch began to adopt a more repressive policy toward nationalists. The nationalist movement was at first nostly headed by leaders who were either not Muslim or only nominally Muslim. One of the most prominnt mationalist leader was Sukarno who demanded complete independence. He founded the Indonesian Nationalist Party (PNI--Partai Nasional Indonesia) in 1927. The Dutch attempted to supress the nationlist movement. They arrested and exiled Sukarno (1929-1931, 1933-1942), Muhammad Hatta (1934-1942), and other nationalist leaders. They banned the PNI and other parties they judged to threaten the colonial regime. These actions, however, did not stop the growth of the movement. The War in Europe dramatically changed the political situation. NAZI Germany invaded the Netherlands (May 1940). Colonial authorities remained loyal to the Dutch Governmeny in Exile established in London. The occupation of the Netherlands, however, severly undercut the authority of the colonial government. Authorities began to hint at indeprndence after the War.

The Pacific War: Dutch East Indies

The Dutch East Indies (DEI) figured prominently in Japan's decession to launch the Pacific War. The Netherlands itself was invaded and occupied by the NAZIs (May 1940). The Dutch royal family and the Dutch government fled to London and established a government-in-exile. The Dutch DEI colonial administration in Batavia recognized the government-in-exile. The DEI was one of the principal colonies the Japanese wanted for their empire because of the petroleum resources, primarily located on Sumatra and Borneo (shared with Britain). Japan had virtually no petroleum and had been importing American oil. Japan needed oil to continue its war in China. Importing oil from America was a serious strategic weakness for a country bent on war. The United States embargoed oil exports after the Japanese moved into French Indo-China. The Japanese demanded that DEI officials export oil to them and DEI officials complied. Even so the Japanese after the fall of the British bastion at Singapore (February 1942). The Japnese Navy smashed an Allied naval flotilla in the Battle of the Java Sea (February 1942), leaving the DEI defenseless. The Japanese then invaded the DEI (March 1942). Parchute landing seized the oil fields intact. Captured Allied soldiers were dealt with savagely. Dutch civilians were interned under terrible conditions. The Japanese despite their stunning successes benefitted little. The American submarine campaign by 1943 was making it difficult to ship raw material from the DEI and other occupied territories (Southern Resourse Zone) to the Japan Home Islands. The American destruction of the Imperial Fleet and reconquest of the Philippines (October 1944) made it virtually imposible. The Japanese in the DEI committed terrible attrocities despite the fact that the nationalist groups largely cooperated with them. There was nob resistance movement of any importance as in the Philippines. The Japanese occupation proved to be a disaster. Largely because the Japanese ceased food stocks, about 4 million people died, largely new to famine. Indonesian nationalist figures like Sukarno largely collaborated with the Japanese who offered, but of course never granted independence. The Japanese held most of the DEI throughoutthe War. The Japanese demonstrated, however, the fragility of Dutch colonial rule.

Nationalist-Japanese Relations: Collaboration

Although the Japanese World War II occupation was disaterous for the Indonesian people, it was a turning point for the nationalist movement. The Nationalists for the first time were able to get ahold of arms. The Dutch East Indies with its oil resources were one of the primary objectives in the Japanese decesion to go to war. The Japanese soon after Peal Harbor and the fall of Singapore invaded and quickly occupied the DEI. The Japanese decided to court Sukarno and the nationalists to obtain support for their administration. The Japanese tightly controlled political activity during their occupation. They offered Sukarno and the PNI the fiction of a puppet regime. They did not, however, transfer any real authority. Their goal was to exploit Indonesian resources to support their war effort and an Indoinesian regime with authority would only complicate this effort. The Japanese regime included conscript labor and because of the conditions, many did not survive the forced labor camps created for them. The camps for the Dutch and other Europeans have received more attention. Perhaps because the Ntionlists collaborated with the Japanese, the forced labor camps for the Indoesians have received relatively little attention. Even more horendous was the famine that resulted from Japanese exploitation and administrative policies. As the war situation deteriorated, the Japanese began organizing Indonesian militias (Java, Bali, and Sumatra) (September 1943). They had not done this earlier as local militias posed a possibe threat, but the war situation changed dramatically in 1943. Allied successes in New Gunia raised threated the Japanese position. The Japanese trained thousands of men, expecting an Allied invasion. These men trained by the Japanese would provide the core of the post-War Indonesuian independence army. The Allies instead of the Dutch East Indies targeted the Central Pacific and the Philippines. To prepare for an expected invasion abnd to secure local support, Japanese authorities promised the Indonesians independence (September 1944). While the represive Japanese policies alienated many Indonesians, Sukarno cooperated with them. And the independence propaganda convinced many Indonesians that ther country would become independent after the War.

Greater East Asia Coprosperity Sphere

The Japanese unlike the Germans in the Soviet Union pursued a fiction of liberating fellow Asian people from European colonialism. In reality they pursued a much more brutal and disorganized campaihn of exploitation than the Europeans. They even set of a puppet regime in China in addition to Manchuko. And they toyed with the Indonesoian nationlist movement. Unlike Burma and the Philippines, hoever, the japanese did not granted independence to the Indonesian Nationalists (1943). They did not allow the Indonesianto send a representative to the Greater East Asia Conference in Tokyo (November 1943). As the War went from bad to worse for the Japanese, they finally announced their internion to grant Indonesia independence (September 1944). This would involve not only Java where the Nationalists were the strongest, but the entire archipelago. This in the minds of many Indonesians vindicated Sukarno and Hatta's collaborationist policies drung the war.

Nationalists Seize Control (1945)

The Indonesians which had collaborated with the Japanese could see clearly see that the Japanese had lost the War. This was obvious by 1944. They began preparing for the inevitable Japanese surrender and Indonesian independence. The planning in 1944 was in secret so as not to incur Japanese repression. The Japanese fially committed to Indonesian independence, but continued to refuse to give the Nationlists any real authoriyy. But becuse the Nationalisrs did not confront the occupation, the Japanese decided to arm and train an Indonesian militia to help repel the expected Allied invasion which of course never came. This militia would become the core of the Indonesian Army that resisted the Dutch after the War. By mid-1945, the Nationalists became increasingly bold, understanding tht the Japanese would see it pointless to attack them thinking that the Allies were preparing an invasion. The first meeting of the Investigatory Commission for Indonesian Independence occured (May 28, 1945). Sukarno gave his impassioned Pancasila speech (June 1). The draft of the Constitution for the new Indonesian Republic was issued (July 16). The Republic set up its central institutions. The Republican government organnized in Jakarta (August). They formally adopted the draft Constitution. The Central Indonesian National Committee (KNIP) was established. Enthuiasm for independence spread across Indonesia. Local Japanese commanders and their troops for the msot part even before the Emperor surrendered avoided confrontation with the Nationalists. They even turned over arms to the Nationlists, often under duress. Republican youths with little central direction took over government buildings and importnt infrastructure facilities in the larger cities. Much of this took place on Java which unlike Borneo was still in Japananses hands. For several weeks, mass pro-independence rallies for several were held. Empero Hirohito announced Japan's surrender to the llkies (August 15). Sukarno and Hatta issued a second declaration of independence (August 17). .

Declaration of Independence (1945)

Sukarno and Hatta immediately after the Japanese surrender (August 1945) announced Indonesia independence (August 17). They thus became the founding fathers of the new nation. They promulgated a constitution for the new nation. Indonesia was the largest archipelago in the world, with over 17,000 islands, about 3,000 of which were inhabited. Despite the Japanese surrender in Tokyo, most of the DEI was still occupied by the Japanese. It would take some time for the Allies to move into the DEI and accept the Japanese surrender and even longer for Dutch colonial authorities and military forces to arrive. This gave the Indinesian nationalists precious time to organize before the Dutch returned. Vice President Hatta proclaims right of the people to form political parties (November 3).

Indonesian War of Independence (1946-49)

The expected Allied invasion never came. Japan surrendered to the Allies (August 15, 1945). Sukarno and Hatta declared independence and became president and vice president of a new independent Indonesia (August 17). It was British not Dutch troops that finally arrived to tke the Japanese surrender. They did not, however, reach Indonesia for several weeks (late-September). The Indonesians by this time had set up an independent government. The new government was particularly entrenched in the main islands of Java and Sumatra. The Dutch returned and tried to reestblish colonial rule. They found thanks to the Japanese that the Indonesians were both organized and armed. As a result, the Dutch were soon in conflict with the new Indonesian Republic. The Dutch did not have alarge military force in the DEI before the War and after the war did not have a massive force to commit to a colonial war, but they did dispatch a military force to regain control. The result was the Dutch War of Undependence. The center of the resistance movemnent was Java. Nationalist groups launched a 4-year guerilla war on Java follwing the War. The Battle of Surabaya was the first major clash between the Nationalists and retuning Dutch (November 10, 1945). Along with military clashes, social revolutions commenced, including the Three Regions (Tiga Daerah) Revolt (1946). The Dutch established Federal states, including the State of East Indonesia in the outer islands whee there were more Christians and more support. The initial fighting which lasted more than a year was inconclusive. The Duch could not defeat the Nationlists and the Naionalists could not drive out the Dutch. The result was the first ceasfire--the Linggadjati Agreement (March 25, 1947). The British helped to negotiate the Linggajati Agreement. This involved Dutch recognition of the Republic and plans for the creation of a federal Indonesia. The British then withdrew (November 1946). None of the differences were resolved between the Dutch and Nationslits who were bent on full independemce abd control of the entire archepeligo. The Dutch launched a major military offensive to end the Nationalist rebellion by force of arms (July 20). The Darul Islamic rebellions broke out in West Java and spread to other provinces. It failed, however, and the leader, Kartosoewiryo, was executed. The Renville Agreement established the Van Mook line between Nationalist and Dutch held territories (January 19, 1948). The Amir Syarifuddin government fell, in large measure because of the unpopularity Renville Agreement among the Nationalists, especially the Muslims (August). The Madiun Affair rocked the Nationalists. Communist forces launch an abortive effort in Central Java in take control of the Nationlist Revolution (September 18). They were supressed by the Nationlists. The Dutch embolded by the infighting among the Nationalists launch aecond military offensive (December 19). They suceed in capturing the Nationalist capital capital at Yogyakarta and most of the Republican cabinet. The retreating Nationalists execute Amir Syarifuddin. The Nationlists also execute executed Tan Malaka (February 1949). The warring sides agree to another ceadfire (August 1).

Famine (1943-48)

One of the poorest reported attrocity of World War II was the famine in the Japanese controlled Dutch East Indies. The fatalities appear to be a combination of Japanese mismanagement, seizure of food stocks, and lack of concern about the consequences for the local population. Food production and consumption appears to hve been adwquate in the DEI before the Japanese invasion. We know of no overall study for what occurred in the DEI, but sone unformation is available on the main islands (Jva and Sumatra). The availavility of food on Java fell sharply within a year of the arrival of the Japanese. The situation appears to have been especially severe in deensly populsted Java. The primary cause of food shortages were Japanese efforts to regulate the domestic trade of food products, including price controls. The Japanese also imposed a coercive system of purchasing rice for distribution. The impact was a disincentive for farmers to produce rice and other foods. The result was a horific famine. We see estimates from 2.4-4.0 million deaths. [Van der Eng, pp. 35-38 and Dower, pp. 295–96.] No one really knows the precise numbers. The DEI famine is not well covered because the Nationalist collborated with the Japanese and thus bear somne degree of reponsibility for the famine. As a result Indonesian historians find it more convenient simply write the tragedy out of history. Indonesia for much of its history had a coinytrooled press, but even since the the rise of democracy, we see no appetite for addressing this tragedy. Food shortahes persisted after the War, although not as severe as during the Japanese era. We are not sure just why. America food aid prevented famine in many countries after the war. We do not at this time know if American food aid reached Indonesia. The major oroblem appears to be the fighting which broke out between the Dutch and Nationalists. This appears to have adversely affected shipments of food between the food producung rural areas into the food deficient cities. The food supply recovered with the end of the fighting (1948-1950). [Van der Eng]

Dutch Recognition of Indonesian Independence (1949)

The Dutch were eventually forced to recognize an independent Indonesia (1949). The Dutch finally decoded to agree toIndonesian independence at the Dutch-Indonesian Round Table Conference (December 1949). Power is transferred to the United States of Indonesia (RUSI). Two interesting phenomenon followed independence which surprised both the Dutch and Indonbnesians who parted ways. First the Dutch were surprised to learn that the loss of its valuable colony did not cause economic disaster. The Netherlands actually became more prosperous without the DEI. Second, the Indonesians nationalist leaders imbued with anti-Western socialist theology expected an economic bonanza with independence. The new country, however, did not achieve economic prosperity by ousting the Dutch. Mismanagement, socialist policies, corruption, and authoritarian political rule left the Indonesians poor and underdeveloped despite their oil resources.

Repatriation

we have not been able to find a good account of what happened to the Dutch in the Dutch East Indies after the war. According to the DEI Census there were some 240,000 Dutch in the colony before the War. [DEI Census, 1930] We are not sure how many Indos were counted with the Dutch. Or just how Dutch or Indo identity was determined. Some Indos looked like Indoesians ans some like Dutch and ever gradiatiin inbetween. The Japanese forced the Dutch into fetid internment camps after they conquered the colony (April 1942). The numbers we have seen are about 170,000 internees. We are not sure why there was such a large differene between the two figures. Perhaps it relates to the Indo issue or perhaps the POWs wre counted seprately. Some 25,000 Dutch perished in the Japanese camps. The number would have been much higher if the Japanese had not surrendered in August 1945 because the conditions in the camps were so horific. We have not yet found data as to how many Dutch returned to the Netherlands after liberation (September-October 1945). We at first though that many did, as the Amercans, Brits, French, Australians in the various Japanese camps all returned home after liberation. This does not seem to have been the case, because for most of the Dutch home was the DEI. A Dutch reader tells us that his father briefly visited the Netherlands bfore the ar ad the clkmate was so cold and unpleasant that he pledged never to go back and he grew up in the DEI. Added to this, the Allies and Germans had done a perty good job of desroying Dutch industries, so the Netherlands was not well positioned to assimilate a large expatriate poplation. As a result, most of the Dutch remained in the DEI until the Dutch granted independece (1949). We do not yet, however, have data to substantiate this. Many of the Dutch colonials had never been to the Neterlands. Many had lived in Indonesia for generations and had comfortables lives in Indonesia. Some chose America or australia. Most returned to the Nethelands. Some of the Dutch tried to say in independent Indoesia, but most found they were unwanted and that there was no opportunities for them there. Most of those who remained were expeled as a reslt of the desputes over Papua (1957). Another aspect of the repatrition issue was the Indos--meaning people of mixed Dutch-Indonesian ancestry. This grop appears to have amounted to some 300,000 people. They were people between two cultures and in the eyes of many Indonesians were tainte by heir connections with the Dutch. Unlike the Dutch, they did not emigrate to the Neterlands as rapidly as the Dutch. Repatriation is not quite the right term for them, but is the term tht is commonly used. One author describes five distinct waves. The first wave took place just after the Pacific War abd during the Bersiap/Indeendence War period (1945-50). They were the largest wave numbering some 100,000 people and consisted of the Indos held in the Japanese camps and those affected by the disorders and fighting. The second wave was also fairly large (1950-57). They were the civil servants, administrators, and soldiers in the Dutch colonial administration and army and of course their families. Almost all lost thiur jobs after independence (1949). They were unenployed and without prospects. The other waves were smaller and asociated wih Papua (1957-58) and West Papua. (1962). The final wave was not really a wavem but as steady drip (1957-64). There was no specific event driving this group from Indonesia. They left gradually because, they realized that they were not being accepted by other Indnesians and just could not integrate into Indonesian society. Many missed family and friends and who had already left Indonesia. And while their employent and business opportunities were virtually nonexistent. [DSD-UCB] Here their ancestry was not only a factor, but the socialist policies of the Indonesian Government was proving an abject failure. The Netherlands economy had not only recovered, but was booming. This ended when the Dutch government ended its repatriation program (1964). A factor here was that Indonesians with no Dutch ancestry were beginnking to seek economic opportunities in the Netherlands.

Independence (1949)

The independent Indonesians adopted a federal system upon independence. A new more democratic Provisional Constitution was approved (1950). here was an attempt to establish a liberal democratic system. This effort was not, however, founded on popular sentiment. There was no tradituon of democratic rule in Indonesia. And with the departure of the Dutch, the economy began to collapse. Indonesian officials had no real idea as to how to run an economy or promote economic growth. Thus the early indepenence era was unstable. The Communist Party with its simplistic slogans attracted sunstantial popular appeal. The longest-serving prime minister was in office amere years. The Government held a general election (1955). This would prove to be the first and for several decades the only democratic general election in Indonesia history. Political instability, however, continued. A Dutch reader writes, "I lived in Indonesia. working for a Dutch company (1949-58). In many cases I witnessed what went on during that exciting period in history. Although I worked for a colonial Dutch firm I realized that we had lost the colonies and that we only played a small part in the history of this country. I met several Indonesian leaders in our bookstore, among others Sukarno himself, but also Mohammed Hatta, the number two person in the government. They always spoke Dutch with me (and with each other). It is interesting to note that Sukarno and also Suharto used the Dutch spelling of their names; Soekarno and Soeharto. Even on their declaration of independence, Sukarno's signature appear as Soekarno. In this respect I also observed that president Obama's half-sister, Maya Ng Soetoro, is using the Dutch spelling of her husband's name: Soetoro." [Stueck]

Sources

DEI Census (1930).

Dower, John W. Dower War Without Mercy (1986).

Dutch Studies Department (DSD-UCB), UC Berkeley. "Amerindo-Repatriation" (2010).

Stueck, Rudi, variou E-mails.

Van der Eng, Pierre. 'Food Supply in Java during War and Decolonisation, 1940-50' MPRA Paper No. 8852 (2008).

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