Figure 1.--This photo postcard shows two soldiers in the new army of mewly independent Lithuaniam following World War I. The soldiers are different ages, perhaps father and son or brothers. The little biy is surely the little vbrother. We are not sure just when the photograph was taken. We think some time in the 1920s. Put your cursor on the image foe a closeup of the uniform. This photograph comes from a former Soviet military museum in Latvia (probably Riga) tht was closed after the disolution of the Soviet Union. The Lithuanians fought the Bolsheciks and Poles after the end of World War I. After the NAZI/Soviet invasion of Poland (1939) and fall of Poland, the Lithuanian and other Baltic armies were not capable of resisting the Soviets. Many Army officers wsere arrested by the NKVD after the Soviet takeover. Most were shor or perished in the Gulag.

Lithuania was a medieval grand duchy ( -1385), a grand principality of Poland (1385-1795), a part of the Russian Empire (1795-1918), an independent republic (1918-40), a republic of the Soviet Union (1940-1991), and finally an independent republic again (1991- ). Linguistic work suggests that the Lithuanians may have first appeared on the basin of the upper Dnipper River. Archeological work suggests that the Lituanians arrived in the Baltic about 2500 BC. The first known historical reference to Baltic peoples is by the Roman historian Tacitus in his work Germania (1st century AD). The first specific mention of Lithuanians occurs in a medieval Prussian manuscript--the Quedlinburg Chronicle (1009). Medieval lords in Prussia and Russia began to pressure the Baltics. A loose federation of Lituanian tribes emerged as a defensive measure. The Lithuanians more effectively resisted the Teutonic Knights than other Baltic tribes (13th century). The Teutonic knights were attempting to Christanize the Baltic tribes and to seize their land making them feudal vassals. Mindaugas forged a loose federation of the still largely pagan Lithuanian tribes (1251). He was crowned king, the only Lithuanian ever to achieve that status. Mindaugas defeated the Teutinic Knights in a major battle (1260). The Jagellons, a dynasty of Lithuanian grand dukes forged an enormous empire streaching from the Black Sea to the Baltic. The Empire was begun by Gediminas ( -1340) and expanded by his sons, Olgierd ( -1377) and Keitutas. Olgierd's son Jagello assasinated his uncle and became the reigning duke. Jagello married Polish Queen Jadwiga and accepted Roman Catholocism (1386). Gramd Duke Witold (Vytautas the Great) revolted against the Jagello (1390). He created a huge state by conquest one of the largest states in Europe (1400). The Lithuanians gained a crushing military victory against the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg (1410). Casimir IV, Jangello's son, negotiated an alliance with lithuania. Alexander I who succeeded as Polish king in 1501 gave the two countries a single ruler. It was agreed at Lublin to have an elected king and a common legislature (1569). It was at this time that Poland becan to experience increasing military pressure Grand Dukes of Moscow--the predecessors of the Tsars. Poland's inability to compete with powerful neighbors resulted in partition (1772, 1793, and 1795). Most of Lithuania became a part of the Russian Empire with small part going to Prussia as well. During and after the Napoleonic Wars there were nationalist insurrections (1812, 1831, 1863, and 1905). The German Army achieved major victories on the Eastern Front during World War I and occupied Lithiania. In the disorders following World War I and the Russian Revolution, Lithuania declared independence (February 1918), but was forced to engage the Germans, Poles, and Russians (Bolsheviks). The Poles captured and held Vilnus. A League of Nations plebecite confirmed Polish possession of Vilnus, but Lithuania did not drop its claim. Relations with Poland were not established until 1938. Even before World War II, NAZI Germany seized Memel with its large German population. The Soviets seized the country in 1940 as invisioned under the NAZI-Soviet Non-aggression Pact. The Soviets arrested large numbers of Lithuanians and deported whole families. When the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941), many Lithuanians greeted them as liberators and supported the NAZI war effort. Some Lithuanians joined the German military. When the Soviets retook Lithuania (1944) those that collaborated or were suspected of collaborating with the NAZIs were dealt with harshly. Estimates suggest that 10 percent of the Lithuanian people were arrested or deported. The Soviets also promoted Russian emmigration to Lithuania. The Soviet seizure of Lithuania and the other Baltic states was never recognized by the United States and other Western European countries. Lithuania finally achieved its independence again with the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991).

Origins

Linguistic work suggests that the Lithuanians may have first appeared on the basin of the upper Dnipper River. Archeological work suggests that the Lituanians arrived in the Baltic about 2500 BC.

Pre-history

Archeologists have found evidence of human habitation in what is now Lithuania as far back as 9000 BC. A prized Baltic resource was amber and trade is believed to begun during the Neolithic era (4000 to 2500 BC). This fossilised pine resin enables modern researchers to help understand the far-flung trade routes of pre-history. The Balts are believed to have migrated from the southeast (anout 2000 BC). Amber was a prized resource to exploit.

Ancient History

Most of our knowledge of ancienr Europe comes from the Greeks and Romans, this includes even a poeple as importantvas the Celts. Smaller groups were reported in much less details. his was certainly the case of the Balts. The Romans never penetrated as far east as he Baltic Sea, orimarily because they were unable to conquer the Germans that lay between them and the Baltic. Thus we know very little about the Balts in ancient times. The first known written historical reference to Baltic peoples is by the Roman historian Tacitus in his work Germania (1st century AD).

Medieval Era

The first specific mention of Lithuanians occurs Lithuania was mentioned as the place where an archbishop called Brunonus was struck on the head by pagans in Litae (Latin for Lithuania). [The Quedlinburg / Kvedlinburgh Chronicle, 1009] This was a medieval Prussian manuscript. Medieval lords in Prussia and Russia began to pressure the Balticsby the turn of the second mellinioum. A loose federation of Lithuanian tribes emerged as a defensive measure. Lithuanians had split into two tribal groups: the Samogitians (lowlanders) in the west and the Aukštaitiai (highlanders) in the east and southeast (12th century). Around this time a wooden castle was built atop Gediminas Hill in Vilnius. The Lithuanians more effectively resisted the Teutonic Knights than other Baltic tribes (13th century). The Teutonic knights were attempting to Christanize the Baltic tribes and to seize their land making them feudal vassals. Mindaugas managed to unite the Liths by forging a loose federation of the still largely pagan Lithuanian tribes (1251). He was crowned king, the only Lithuanian ever to achieve that status. Mindaugas defeated the Teutonic Knights in a major battle (1260). The Jagellons, a dynasty of Lithuanian grand dukes forged an enormous empire streaching from the Black Sea to the Baltic. The Empire was begun by Gediminas ( -1340) and expanded by his sons, Olgierd ( -1377) and Keitutas. Olgierd's son Jagello assasinated his uncle and became the reigning duke. Jagello married Polish Queen Jadwiga and accepted Roman Catholocism and King of Poland as Ladislaus II (1386). (Members of the Jagello dynasty can be confused because different names are used in Poland and other countries.) Grand Duke Witold (Vytautas the Great) revolted against the Jagello (1390). He created a huge state by conquest one of the largest states in Europe (1400). The Lithuanians crushed the Teutonic Knights at the Battle of Tannenberg (1410).

Lithuania-Poland (14th-16th centuries)

Poland and Lithuania were a major power in medieval Europe. They composed a vast European empire (14-16th centuries). The Empire streached from the Black Sea nearly to Moscow. The two countries operated as a bi-national confederation for nearly 200 years. Casimir IV, Jangello's son, negotiated an alliance with Lithuania. Alexander I who succeeded as Polish king in 1501 gave the two countries a single ruler. They finally united formally at Lublin (1569). The Lithuanians ans Poles at Lublin zagreed to an elected king and a common legislature. It was at this time that Poland becan to experience increasing military pressure Grand Dukes of Moscow--the predecessors of the Tsars. Russia, Prussia, and Austria partitioned Poland (1772, 1792, and 1795).

Russian Empire (1795-1918)

Poland's inability to compete with powerful neighbors resulted in partition (1772, 1793, and 1795). As part of this process, Lithuania was also absorbed into the Russian Empire. Most of Lithuania became a part of the Russian Empire with small part going to Prussia as well. This occured after the Third Partition. Russia subsequently attempted to immerse Lithuania in Russian culture and language, a process called Russification. The became a major Russian effort in the late-19th century. Tsar Alexander II in particular pursued a policy of Russification throughout the Empire. This resulted in growing anti-Russian sentiment. During and after the Napoleonic Wars there were nationalist insurrections (1812, 1831, 1863, and 1905). Russification was a major cause of emigration, much of it to the United States.

World War I (1914-18)

Lithuaniawas a part of the Russian Empire at the tme of World War I. The Russian adhering to treaty commitments with France and invaded German East Prussia. The Germans dnashed the invading Russian armies. After the German Army achieved major victories on the Eastern Front and occupied Lithiania. After the Russian Recolutiob and the collapse of the Russian Empire. A Lithuanian conference of prominent Lithuanians met at Vilna (September 18-22, 1917). This led to the establishment of a national council and after the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia, a commitment to independence (December 11). The Germans had occupied Lithuania and encouraged the Lithuanians tondeclare independence. The Lituanians formally declared independence (February 16, 1918), under German protection. This was possible because of the punitive Breast Litovsk Treaty that the Germans imposed on the Bolshevicks.

Independence (1918-40)

The German defeat in the West (November 1918) changed the picture in the East. Under the terms of the Armistice, the Germans had to withdraw from the areas of the Russian Empire they has conquered. As a result, A victorious Germany Army no longer stood between the Bolshecicks and Lithuania. The Lithuanians were forced forced to engage the Germans, Poles, and Russians (Bolsheviks). The Bolsheviks invaded, but German forced prevented any important gains. The Bolsheviks under the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3), however, were forced to recognize Lithuanian independence (March 3). The Germans also recognized Lithuanaia (March 23). The Germans convinced the Lithuanians to sign an alliance (May 14). The Lithuanians decided to create a monarchy rather than a republic. They elected Duke William of Urach as their king (June 4). I am nor sure as the Kaiser Wilhelm's role in this. At the time it looked like the Germans now that the Russians were out of the War to achiece victory in the West. The defeat of Germany in the West changed the political situation. The Germans began withdrawing immediately after the armistace on the Western Front (November 11). The election of the king was canceled. Augustinas Voldemaras formed a government, but the political situation was unstable. With the withdrawlmof the Germans, the Bolsheviks invaded. The Poles captured and held Vilnus. A League of Nations plebecite confirmed Polish possession of Vilnus, but Lithuania did not drop its claim. Relations with Poland were not established until 1938.

World War II (1939-45)

Even before World War II, NAZI Germany seized Memel with its large German population. The Soviets seized the country in 1940 as invisioned under the NAZI-Soviet Non-aggression Pact. The Soviets arrested large numbers of Lithuanians and deported whole families. When the NAZIs invaded the Soviet Union (June 1941), many Lithuanians greeted them as liberators and supported the NAZI war effort. Some Lithuanians joined the German military. When the Soviets retook Lithuania (1944) those that collaborated or were suspected of collaborating with the NAZIs were dealt with harshly. Estimates suggest that 10 percent of the Lithuanian people were arrested or deported.

Soviet Era (1940-41/44-91)

The Red Army seized control of Lithuania (1940). The new Soviet installed puppet government obediently set about applying the Stalin's orders. Cointrol was in the hands of the NKVD. and the NKVD pursued a terrifying regime od arrests and deportations. Part of the Soviet plan was to organize the emogration of ethnic Russians into the country. Many of those arrested were shot, others disappeared into the Gulag. As a result, many Lithuanians saw the NAZIs as liberators when they invaded (June 1941). The German crossed the border as past of Operation Barbarossa (June 1941) and began a region of terror of their own. As part of Generalplan Ost, ethnic Lithuanians were slated for death, but the immediate German killing actions focused on the Jews. The Red Army reimposed Soviet ruke (1944). Stalin promoted Russian emmigration to Lithuania to change the ethnic ballance. The Soviet seizure of Lithuania and the other Baltic states was never recognized by the United States and other Western European countries. The Red Army began to retake Poland and Lithuania with Operation Bagearion (July 1944). After reoccupying the Baltic states, the Soviets implemented a program of sovietization, which involved extensive industrialisation. The Soviets carried out massive deportations of ethnic Lituanians to stamp out all resistance to collectivisation or support of partisans. [81] Baltic partisans, such as the Forest Brothers, continued to resist Soviet rule through armed struggle for several years, but were finally hunted down an executed. The Soviets had previously carried out mass deportations (1940–41), but the secon wave of deportations (1944–55) were even larger greater. Some 245,000 Lithuanians were deported, about the number deported from the three Baltic republic. The conditions of the deportations were harsh. Some 20,000 Lithuanians including 5,000 children perished. [International Commission] Considerably more ethnic Lithuanians died after World War II than during it. [Snyder, p. 80-83.] The effort the change the economic compositiion of the Baltic states cintinued even after the death of Stalin, but the forced deportations were disontinued soom after his death. Soviet authorities attempted, but failed to totally suppress Lithuania's national identity. Underground dissident groups were active in the post-Era after Stalin's death when the draconia NKVS operations were suspended. They began publishing periodicals and catholic literature.[Vasiliauskaitė] While the Soviets cointinued to destroy monuments an artifacts of the indeenbdence era, Lithuanians nationalists quitely wiorked to promote national culture, preserved historical memory, instigated patriotism with the idea of a future independence. Here a major break was the Helsiki Accirds (1970s). Dissidents established the Lithuanian Freedom League under Antanas Terleckas. The Helsinki Group demanded that Lithuania's occupation be recognised illegal and the NAZ-Soviet pact be condemned. [Lietuvos Helsinkio grupė] The KGB continued to supress nationalist movenment, but the Helsinki Accords provided a degree of international cover.

Independence (1990-91)

The Soviet Union sought to destroy Lithuanian national sentiment. Stalin ordered the NKVD to murder and deport many ethnic Lithuanians. He also ordered the movement of ethnic Russians into Lithuania. After de-Stalinizatiin, the deport of Lituanians ceased, but ethnic Russians continued to move into Lithuania, atracted bybthe relatively high living stnadards. These were trendsthroughout all three Soviet baltic trpublics. The KGB which replaced the NKVD was less murderous but till brutally effective. Any expression of Lithi=janian nationalist sentiment got one arrested as well as exposure to other sanctions. KGB repression began to weaken with the Heksinki Accords and the Jewish Refusniks (1970s). Lithuanian nationalists began to test the waters, but continued to be arrested. This began to change when Mikhail Gorbachev became General Secreatru of the Soviet Communistb Party (1985). Brought up in the Soviet Union he actually believed that Communism was a suoerior system and could bed reformned. And he though that natiinlist forces could be convinced with reasom--expaining glasnost and perestroika. He had no idea he was letting the genie out of the bottle. Once he realised what he had done, he was unwilling to use force to recork the bottle. The Reform Movement of Lithuania (Lietuvos Persitvarkymo Sąjūdis), is the political organisation which led the Lithuanian struggle independence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Sąjūdit was established (1988), and was led by Vytautas Landsbergis. Its goal was to reinstate of the inter-War independent Lithuanian Republic. The Lithuanian independence movement reemerged from the shadows as Soviet leader Gorbechov instituted policies allowing greater freedom of speech and actual free elections (1980s). By all accounts he was surprised at the level of anti-Soviet feeling that was let loose. The NKVD/KGB had supressed the expresion of natiinalist sentiment, but not the soul of the Liyhuanian people. This was made apparent by the extrodinary Baltic Way demonstration (August 23, 1989). The date was significant--the 40th Anniversary of the infamous NAZI-Soviet Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact. Vytautas Landsbergis, the non-Communist head of the largest Lithuanian popular movement (Sajudis), was elected president (1990). On the same day that Landsbergis was elected, the Lithuanian Supreme Council rejected Soviet rule and declared Lithuania's independennt. The Act of the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania or Act of March 11 (Aktas dėl Lietuvos nepriklausomos valstybės atstatymo) was the declaration by the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic (March 11, 1990) signed by all the members of the Supreme Council of the Republic of Lithuania led by Sąjūdis. The Act emphasized restoration and legal continuity of the interwar Lithuanian republic (1919-40) which had been supressed by the Soviet Union (June 1940). Lithunaia's act was the first time that an occupied state suceeded in declaring independence from the imploding Soviet Union. It was the first Baltic republic to declare independence. Confrontation with the Soviet Union ensued along with economic sanctions as Gorbechov reqjected the use of force. The Soviets lifted the econonic sanctions after both sides agreed to a face-saving compromise. Lithuania's independence was confirmed with the dissolution of the Soviet Union (1991).

Sources

International Commission For the Evaluation of the Crimes of the Nazi and Soviet Occupation Regimes in Lithuania. Deportations of the Population in 1944-1953, paragraph 14.

Lietuvos Helsinkio grupė. (Dokumentai, atsiminimai, laiškai) sudarė V. Petkus, Ž. Račkauskaitė (Uoka: 1999).

Snyder, Timothy. The Reconstruction of Nations: Poland, Ukraine, Lithuania, Belarus, 1569-1999 (Yale University Press: 2003).

Vasiliauskaitė, V. Lietuvos Ir Vidurio Rytų Europos šalių periodinė savivalda, 1972–1989 (2006).

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