Russian Free Peasantry (1861-1928)


Figure 1.--Here we see a peasant group before World War I. I am not sure just what this group was. While we do not know what the group was, the image does give a good idea of how Russian peasants dressed.

Emancipation was a major step in Russia. Emancipation didn't in fact bring immediate changes in the condition of the peasants. Emancipation neither freed the peasants from substantial obligations or radically reordered the social and economic constraints placed upon them. The legislative measures accompanying Emancipation delayed the process. Three measures in particular impaired the potential economic self-sufficiency of the peasants. A transition period of 9 years continued peasant obligations to the old land-owners. Large areas of common land were conveyed to important land-owners as otrezki. This made many forests, roads and rivers the property of the land owners and gave them the right to charge access fees. The serfs also were required to pay the land-owner for their parcel of land in a series of redemption payments. These fees were used to compensate the landowners who had been issued bonds. The peasants would repay the funds plus interest to the government over 49 years. The Tsar finally canceled the redemption payments in 1907. Emancipation thus disappointed many peasants. Often in took years to get title to the land. Many serfs were cheated by exorbitant land prices. Historians significantly differ in their assessment of emancipation. Many are very critical. One historian claims that the ukase emancipating the serfs was motivated by "cowardice and by caprice" and for those reasons was not effective. [Ludwig, p.167.] The goal was to the abolition of serfdom would shift the rural economy to individual peasant land owners and the development of a market economy. This goal was also impaired because the serfs were not educated and the land process poorly administered by the reluctant nobility. The uneven application of the legislation also caused problens. The serfs in Congress Poland and northern Russia were left largely landless. Emancipation was more successful in other areas where they became the majority land owners.

Serfdom

Serfdom, the Russian form of feudalism, played a major role in Russian life through the 19th century when it was abolished. Serfdom was more humane than American race-based chattle slavery, but serfdom as also a brutal system which tied millions of Russians to the land. Even freed slaves were descriminated against. The influence continued into the 20th century. An assessment of Russian boys' clothing would thus be incomplete withoutan assessment of serfdom. Some Russian boys even in the 19th century look much like European boys. Other Russian boys, especiall serf boys and rural village boys dressed very destinctly.

Emancipation

Serfdom was ended by Tsar Alexander II, the liberator Tsar, (1861). Even so the peasantry continued to be exploited laboring on huge rural estates owned by aristocrats. Tzar Nicholas I refused to act on the issue of serfdom. Alexander II , by contrast was amenable to reform. Alexander's advisers argued that Russia's feudal serf-based economy could not compete with modern industrialized nations such as Britain, France, and Prussia. The Tzar began to consider the end of serfdom in Russia. The Russian nobility feeling their livelihood jeopardized, objected strenuously. Alexander responded, saying "It is better to abolish serfdom from above than to wait for the time when it will begin to abolish itself from below." Alexander in 1861, issued his Emancipation Manifesto. There were 17 legislative acts designed to free the serfs in Russia. Personal serfdom would be abolished and all peasants would be able to buy land. The State would advance the the money to the landlords and would recover it from the peasants in 49 annual sums known as redemption payments. This was necessary because the Crimean War had bankrupted the national treasury while confiscating land from the nobility would have been untenable politically. The action earned him the title of "The Liberator".

Limitations to Emancipation

Emancipation was a major step in Russia. Emancipation didn't in fact bring immediate changes in the condition of the peasants. Emancipation neither freed the peasants from substantial obligations or radically reordered the social and economic constraints placed upon them. The land conveyed to the peasantry had to be paid for and was actually given to the commune as a unit and not to individual families. The legislative measures accompanying Emancipation delayed the process. Three measures in particular impaired the potential economic self-sufficiency of the peasants. A transition period of 9 years continued peasant obligations to the old land-owners. Large areas of common land were conveyed to important land-owners as otrezki. This made many forests, roads and rivers the property of the land owners and gave them the right to charge access fees. The serfs also were required to pay the land-owner for their parcel of land in a series of redemption payments. These fees were used to compensate the landowners who had been issued bonds. The peasants would repay the funds plus interest to the government over 49 years. The Tsar finally canceled the redemption payments in 1907. Emancipation thus disappointed many peasants. Often in took years to get title to the land. Many serfs were cheated by exorbitant land prices. Historians significantly differ in their assessment of emancipation. Many are very critical. One historian claims that the ukase emancipating the serfs was motivated by "cowardice and by caprice" and for those reasons was not effective. [Ludwig, p.167.] The goal was to the abolition of serfdom would shift the rural economy to individual peasant land owners and the development of a market economy. This goal was also impaired because the serfs were not educated and the land process poorly administered by the reluctant nobility. The uneven application of the legislation also caused problens. The serfs in Congress Poland and northern Russia were left largely landless. Emancipation was more successful in other areas where they became the majority land owners.

Military Service

Serfdom severely limited peasant movement and tied serfs to the land. This guaranteed a workforce to the nobility or the state and ensured that the serfs were easily available for taxation and military service. Conscription was a virtual death sentence and for many years was for a 25-year period. This meant ht the individuals conscripted were virtually lost to their families. Serfs thus loated military service.

Zemstvo

The zemstvos were the local self-government councils established in rural areasd as part of Tsar Alexander II's Great Reforms. The first zemstvo law was promulgated soon after emancipation (1864). Nikolay Milyutin conceived of the zemstvos. All cvlasses were involved in the zemstvos and voting was weighted. Nobels thus had more say in the decesions made. Even so the peasantry had an institutional platform for raising issues and more say than theu had ever had before. The zemstvos addressed the issues handled by municipal goverment in other cpountries ( education, medical care, public welfare, food supply, and road maintenance). The zemstvos received comsiderable criticism by social reformers becsuse of the influence of the nobility and conservatism of the zemstvos. The Bolshevicks after the October Revolution ended the zemstvo system (1917). This reflected the conservatism of the semstvos and influence of the nobility as s well as the Bolshevicks effort to eliminate power sources they could not control.

Demographics

The literature on the Russian peasantry often concentrates on the poverty and explotation that the serfs and after 1861 that the serfs endureded. This of course was themes trumpeted during the Soviet era. One historian points to an anomaly associated with this line., namely that the population increased substantially during the 18th and 19th centuries. [Moon] Russian peasants married early and maintained a high birth rate. This is a common approach among rural populations. Both landlords and free serf families needed labor and there were high child mortality rates. Another factor was the availability of food. [Kahan] A well-fed peasantry and the rate of the population increase suggests that the poverty and level of exloitation may not have been as severe as is commonly suggested.

Sepatatemess

Authors also tend to stress the baskwardness and sepatemess of the peasantry. This also suite Soviet scholars after Stalin began his assailt on the peasantry (1928). This is a theme persued by jornalists who generated peasants as exotic beings to incease interest. And the Soviets by stessing the backwarness of the peasants justified state action to reshape the peasantry. Some authors maintsain that peasant life was not as separate as has been suggested. The mere size of the peasant populztion alone suggests that it could not be entirely separate from the larger Russian poplation. The families of Parish priests had extensive contacts with peasants. The nobility often used serfs and later peasanys as servants. Many primary school teachers were the children of emancipated serfs. The managerial staff on estates such as the stewards and clerks were mostly peasants. And after Emancipation peasants began moving to coties seeking jobs.

Productivity

The Soviets streesed the backwardness of the peasantry and the poorly educated peasants were often incredibly backward. The Soviets had considerable, difficulty explaining how backward peasants were nore productive than the suposedly advanced managers of collective farms.

Sources

Kahan, Arcadius. University of Chicago.

Moon, David. The Russian Peasantry, 1600-1930: The World the Peasants Made (London & New York: Addison Wesley Longman Ltd., 1999), 396p.






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Created: 2:31 AM 10/25/2006
Last updated: 2:31 AM 10/25/2006