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American history was powerffully influenced throughout the 19th century by the steady push west and the development of the Western frontier. This began of course with the establishment of the first English colonies beginning with Jamestown (1607). At the time the Western Frontier was just a few miles up the James River. Gradually the Western Frontier was seen as the Appalachin Mountains. The British effort to close off the land beyond the Appalachins was one of the major causes of the Revolution (1776). The West for the early American Republic was the Ohio River Valley which the Erie Canal played an important role in opening. To the south there were other lands beyond the Apalachins which proved to be ideal for growing cotton based on slave labor and large plantations. The United States Western frontier was redefined by the Louisiana Purchase (1803). The economy of the West depended on the Mississippi River and the outlet to the sea at New Orleans. It is no accident that the British in the War of 1812 attempted to seize New Orleans (1815). After the War of 1812 the American movement West focused primarily on the territory east of the Mississippi. Here the Erie Canal played an important role. There were wars with the Native Americans which helped make Andrew Jackson the preminent political figure overseeing this period. The only American president with an era named after him. The frontier which at first seemed endless played a powerful role in the development od the American character. The existence of huge quantities of virtually free land was very different from the situation in Europe. Some historians describe this as the vital force in the building of America.
America settled these lands on two basic lines. North of the Ohio it was free labor and small family farms. South of the Ohio it was slave labor and slave labor. Ironically the rise of the Amnerican economy was to a large degree based on slave labor that produced the cotton which provided the principal expot economy before the advent of industrial exports. The Mexian War again
expanded the frontier (1856-58). After the Civil War the settlement of the frontier beyond the Mississippi began in earnest, including the Great Plains. The major figures of the Western movement are now lengends clouded with myth: mountain men, riverboat men, pioneers, Native Americans, Pony Express riders, cowboys, homesteaders, cavalry, outlaws, bullwhackers, and others. The final phase of the Western expansion was aided by both the expanding railroad network and increased European immigration. The frontier was essentially closed in the 1890s, a fact that marked the transition from an agricultural to the world's pre-eminent industrial nation.
This history of the United States began with the establishment of the first English colonies beginning with Jamestown (1607). At the time the Western Frontier was just a few miles up the James River. Gradually the Western Frontier was seen as the Appalachin Mountains.
The natives of both North and South America exibit a great variety of lingusistic, anatomical, and cultural characteristics. The discussion of these diverse peoples must thus proceeded by groups and subgroupings. The most advanced civilizations were those developing in Mexico, Central America, and South America. The civilizations in North America were primarily hunter-gather civilizations, but some were engaged in settled agriculture. Native Americans have in the United States been traditionally referred to as Indians or in Europe as Red Indians. It refers to the pre-Colombian peoples of the Americas. Many tribes no longer exist and about them little is known. Considearble anthropoligal work, however, exists on many tribes of North America. Native Americans are credited with the development of some key agricultural crops, corn and potatos as well as tobacco, cacao (chocolate), peanuts, beans, squashes, pumkins, sunflowers, gourds, cotton, and others were among 25 major crops cultivated by native Americans. Interestingly, it was the potato introduced into Europe after the discovery of the America that made posible the explosive growth of European populations after the 16th century. Native Americans, in part because of the horendous treatment by white Americans as well as the exposure to European diseases, now comprise only a small part of the Americam mosaic. It is a rich, colorful traition, no matter how small. Native American dress is showcased atvpowwows and other gatherings held annually throughout America.
The British effort to close off the land beyond the Appalachins was one of the major causes of the Revolution (1776). Perhaps the greatest achievemet of American diplomacy was gaining the territory west of the Apalachins to the Missippi River from the British.
The West for the early American Republic was the Ohio River Valley which the Erie Canal played an important role in opening. To the south thir were other lands beyond the Apalachins which proved to be ideal for growing cotton based on slave labor and large plantations. The economy of the West depended on the Mississippi River and the outlet to the sea at New Orleans. It is no accident that the British in the War of 1812 attempted to seize New Orleans (1815). After the War of 1812 the American movement West focused primarily on the territory east of the Mississippi.
The United States Western frontier was redefined by the Louisiana Purchase (1803).
The the Erie Canal played an important role in the Western movement. The pioneers moving West ino the Ohio Valley were mostly farmers. The Erie Canal was an enormous undertaking. And interestngly itvcan be seen as launching the American industrial revolution.
There were wars with the Native Americans which helped make Andrew Jackson the preminent political figure overseeing this period. The only American president with an era named after him. These ars east of the Missippi ended with the Trail of Tears, the expusion of Native American peoples west beyond the Mississippi.
The Revolution achieved independence for a new American republic. American diplomats gained boundaries west to the Mississippi, including areas not won by the Continental Army (1783). This was a notable achuevement by the Continebtal Army and an even more incredible aschievement by American diplomats. And thus only two decade laters, French Emperror contributed his most imprtant schuevement. By selling the fledglking American Republic the Lousisna Territiry (1803), he guarated that North America woukd be dominated by thde English-speaking people and the fledgling United States. This development would detrermine the outcome of the 20th centuty.
As a result of the The War of 1812, the Americans finmlly learned that the Canadiand did not want to join them. It is at this time that the vision of Manifest Destiny and reaching the Pacific began to coalese in the American mind. This had two major comolications. Two Europran powers dominated the Weest--The British in Oregon and Spain in Texas and Califiornia. Britain in particular was a major world power. And the Royal Nsvy provided far greater connrctiins with the Pacific Coast than America. Ulimaterly, extending the boundaries west to the Pacvific was determined by demographics--the strady flow of land hungry Americans west.
From the earliest point of indeopendence Before slavery came to dominste American polyics, one of the greatest issues was what came to be called 'internal improvements'. This meant the economic and engineering programs undertaken by state abd Federal governments to open up the erstern territories. More than anything this meant
transoortatiin, projct thst would help people move west into the largely virgin lands. The Frontier is often described as wide open--it was not There were the Native Ameruicas and all kinds of natural barriers. One of the most notabkle fiortiersman swas Daniel Boone who fiund he Cumberland Gap. Now that sounds like a large gap in the npinyains. It was not, the first groups that Boone led into Kentuucky was on foot. And all refinements at first had to br produced once the Americans got there. Thus internal improvementys were needed to get people west beyiond the Appalachins. George Washington was a major supporter of internal improves leading to the Chesapeake and Ohio (C & O) Canal. Secretary of the Treasury Alecabder Hamiliton was also a strong adviovate of internal improvements. The idea of internal improvements, however, became higly contentious. The issue was whether the Federal government has the authority under the Constitution to finance internal imprivement infrastructure projects. Many believed that this was the respoinsibility of the the state and local authiorities. And ideological split emerged. The Feseralists led by Hamiklton believed in a strong Federal Government. The Anti-Federalists/Democratic-Reoublicans led by Jeferson were intent on limiting the authority of the Federal Governmernt, fearing the evolution of tyranical government, although Jefferson as president began to shift his views on onternalm improvements. Internal improvemnts became what has been described as the first 'flashpoint of federalism'. (These debates continue into our modern American politics.)
A huge debate developed over the idea of building a National Road, a road over which wagons could follow from the port of Baltimore into he Ohio River. (The modern U.S. Route 40.) At the time Baltimore was a hugely important port.) While Presidents Jefferson and Madison thought Federal internal improvement projects unconstitutional, they did advocate the Nationl Road which would use the sale of federal lands in western territories to provide funds dor the states to build the road. President James Monroe saw the project unconstitutional and vetoed a bill that would have pemitted Federal particuipatuiion--tollbooths to fund road maintenzance. This became a major duvuiding after the War If 1812 between the Democrats and the Whigs. The single most importabt oroject sas the Eire Canal (1817-25). Itsas built as a state rather than a Federalm oriject. Whig president John Quincy Adams (1825-29) allied with Henty Clay aavocated significant Federal internal improvenmrnt projects. They were blocked by the election of President Andrew Jackson (1828) whi belierved that internal improvements were a dangerous expansion of Federal authioruty. Among other actions, he turned the National Road over over the the states. This was something of an anomaly as Jackson (Tennessee)n was a Westerner like Clay (Kentucky) and Western politicns generally supported intenal improvemnts. Jackson also believed that these contracts weere an oopen invitatiion fir graft and cirruptio whic in fact was the case. Clay firmulated the American System, involving governmental grants and a Federal national monetary policy -- central banking conducted by tyhe Second Nationasl Bank. National Bsnk. President Jackson would kill the Babk. . Opposition to federal participation in internal improvements declined slowly during the nineteenth century.
The frontier which at first seemed endless played a powerful role in the development od the American character. The existence of huge quantities of virtually free land was very different from the situation in Europe. Some historians describe this as the vital force in the building of America.
America settled the lands east of the Mississippi on two basic lines. North of the Ohio it was free labor and small family farms. South of the Ohio it was slave labor and slave labor. Ironically the rise of the Amnerican economy was to a large degree based on slave labor that produced the cotton which provided the principal expot economy before the advent of industrial exports. The Mexian War again
expanded the frontier (1856-58).
he Revolutionary War and Amerivan diplomacy created an American Republic with the Mississippi as the Westrn border (1783), The Emperor Napoleon provided a huge tract to the west of the Mississippi--the Louisian Purchase (1803). The subsequent expansion of the United States hingened on two territories--Oregin and Texas. After the War of 1812 and the increasing realization that Canadians did not want to be part of America, th idea of Manifest Destiny began to take hold, the expasion west to the Pacific Coast. This involved confrontation with foreign powers. The most serious was with Britain which claimed the Oregon Territory. Britain had the military power to prevent further American expansion, but the cost would be high of fighting the United States in such aemote location. In the end the issue woukld be settled by demographics. Large numbers of Americans settled the southern Oregon Territory, tavelling over the Oregon Trail. The path to the south was more complicated. Spain as a colonial power was replaced by the new Mexican Republic. Mexico was not as great a military power as Britain, but the power differential between Mexico and the United States in the pre-0industrial era was not as great as it would later become after America's industrial expansion. There were, however, serious domestic political considerations. After the War of 1812 slavery began to develop as a serious devisive issue. This was temporarily resolved by the Missouri Compromise (1820), but Mexican Territory was outside the area of the territory coverd by that compromise. Thus adding Mexican territory would mean undoing the compromise. As in Oregon, the issue would eventually be partially resolved by demographics, but ultimately a war. American began settling in the norther Mexican territory of Texas which even before the arrival of the Americans resisted control by the Mexican centrl govrnment. American settlement would lead to the war of independemce (1835-36). Resistnce by anti-slave forces meant that Texas fior a decade existed as an independent republic which legalized slavery. The Mexicans did not try to retake slavery, but made it clear that it would not accept annexation by the United States. President Polk (1845-49), a strong Jacksonian, moved forward on both Oregon and Texas. A compromise was reached with Britain over Oregon, but the issue of Texas and the southeast would be settled by war.
After the Civil War the settlement of the frontier beyond the Mississippi began in earnest, including the Great Plains. This is the period of the Wild West, one of the most colorful and evocatove periods in American history, the subject of counless legends, books, and dramatizations. The Western became aand popular even beyond America's boundaries. The major figures of the Western movement are now lengends clouded with myth: mountain men, riverboat men, pioneers, Native Americans, Pony Express riders, buffalo hunters, cowboys, homesteaders, cavalry, outlaws, bullwhackers, and others. One of the most important aspect of the Wild West story was the Plains Indian Wars meaning primarily the Plains Tribes This proved to be a brutal undertaking. Central to this was the destructiong of the huge thundering buffalo herds -- the live blood of the Plains Tribes. One historian writes, "'We destroyed everything of value to the Indians,' Custer wrote in his official report. Unofficially he told his commnding officer, 'We have cleaned Black Kettle and his band out so thoroughly that they can neither fight, dress, sleep, eat or ride without sponging upon their friends.' He was not exaggerating. It was an unparalleled victory." [Schultz] The final phase of the Western expansion was aided by both the expanding railroad network and increased European immigration. Texas had cattle, but the problem was getting them to maarket. It was the extension of rail lines that led to the cattle drives from Texas and the rise of some of the most iconic Western towns like Abilene, Deadwood, Dodge City, Fort Worth, Laramie, Tommstone, and Wichita.
The frontier was essentially closed in the 1890s, a fact that marked the transition from an agricultural to the world's pre-eminent industrial nation.
Schultz, Duane. Coming Through Fire: George Armstrong Custer and Chief Black Kettle (2013), 304p.
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