Figure 1.--We are not entirely sure what happened to starving Indian children before the 19th century, but with the establismnt of the Raj and the arrival of Christian missioraies we begin to see the establishment of missioins that would take in at least some children. This would only be a able to help a small number of children, but they did help some. The British began to get a handle oin famines by the turn-of-the 20th century. They still occurred but the death tolls were hugely rediced.. Here we see a mission about 1910 that was taking in starning children.
Famines are tragic, but frequently occuring phenonnon in South Asia. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on climate, pptimsrily because this affects rsinfall abd the water needed for crops. Aa favorable southwest summer monsoon is critical in producung the water needed for irrigating crops. Given the importance of the summer monsoon, Indian scientusts have addressed the issue of assessing the monsoons and providing officials needed for droughtband famine managemnent. [Swain et al., pp. 5505–5507] Climate and weather including the monsoons are variible meaning that the water needed for agriculture delivered varies and there are periodic droughts. These droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines. The severity of the drought and famine is in karge measure dependent on just how little rain falls, but policy issues are another variable and can signiicantly affect mortality rates. The famines have been devestating. South Asia is a large area. Most of even the major famines have been loclized or the most severe in local aeas, usually becuse of variations on rainfall patterns. These famines hase been a problem since ancient times. The historical record is extrodinarily limited. The earliest widely accepted Indin texts are the Edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BC). They were written in very early forms of middle-Indo-Aryan languages in the Brahmi script. And almost from the beginning we see references to famine, but very few details. It is clear thar rukers over time attempted or were expected to mitigate famine conduitions during poeriods of drought. It is not clear to what extent they failes or suceeded. There were two primary policy resonmses. First was direct distrubution. This involved creating grain stockpiles which could be distrinuted in time of drought and crop failure. Te second methos in volve indutect means such as lolweting taxes or other exactiins on the producers. There could also be various market interventions. Despite India's extensive historical record we know very little about early Indian famines. Only since the beginning of British rule (late-18th century), however do we have detailed reporting on famines in the subconinebnt. One of he the justifications of British rule was a more systematic administration. Nothing could be done sbout the weather, but policies could be implemented that prevented fanine and death. In this regard, th British absolutely failed (19th centutry). Laissez-faire attitudes like those associated with the Irish Potato Famine were a major part of the problem. A series of 19th century famines during the British Raj were caused by harvest failure. This only began to change with the turn of the 20th century. Finally thd British managded effective fzmine relief measures. There was, however, one last devestaing famine--the World War II Bengal Famine (1943). Here it was not a failure of the summer monsoon, but the Japanese seizure of Burma which bad been supplying rice to Bengal.
Climate: The Summer Monsoon
Famines are tragic, but frequently occuring phenonnon in South Asia. Indian agriculture is heavily dependent on climate, pptimsrily because this affects rsinfall abd the water needed for crops. Aa favorable southwest summer monsoon is critical in producung the water needed for irrigating crops. Given the importance of the summer monsoon, Indian scientusts have addressed the issue of assessing the monsoons and providing officials needed for droughtband famine managemnent. [Swain et al., pp. 5505–5507] Climate and weather including the monsoons are variible meaning that the water needed for agriculture delivered varies and there are periodic droughts. These droughts have periodically led to major Indian famines. The severity of the drought and famine is in large measure deoendent on just how little rain falls, but policy issues are another variable and can signiicantly affect mortality rates. The famines have been devestating. South Asia is a large area. Most of even the major famines have been loclized or the most severe in local aeas, usually becuse of variations in rainfall patterns.
Mitigation
It is clear thar rulers over time attempted or were expected to mitigate famine conduitions during poeriods of drought. It is not clear to what extent they failes or suceeded. Indian rulers adopted various methods of famine relief. There were two primary policy resonmses. First was direct distrubution. This involved creating grain stockpiles which could be distrinuted in time of drought and crop failure. The second method involve indutect means such as revenue measurtes like lowering axes or other exactions on the producers. Ruklers could increase pay to soldiers sbd officia;s. There could also be various market interventions. Public workers projects could be lumnched to hire unemployed workers.
Chronology
These famines hase been a problem since ancient times. The historical record is extrodinarily limited. The earliest widely accepted Indin texts are the Edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BC). They were written in very early forms of middle-Indo-Aryan languages in the Brahmi script. And almost from the beginning we see references to famine, but very few details. It is clear thar rukers over time attempted or were expected to mitigate famine conduitions during poeriods of drought. It is not clear to what extent they failes or suceeded. Despite India's extensive historical record we know very little about early Indian famines. Only since the beginning of British rule (late-18th century), however do we have detailed reporting on famines in the subconinebnt. One of he the justifications of British rule was a more systematic administration. Nothing could be done sbout the weather, but policies could be implemented that prevented fanine and death. In this regard, th British absolutely failed (19th centutry). Laissez-faire attitudes like those associated with the Irish Potato Famine were a major part of the problem. A series of 19th century famines during the British Raj were caused by harvest failure. This only began to change with the turn of the 20th century. Finally thd British managded effective fzmine relief measures. There was, however, one last devestaing famine--the World War II Bengal Famine (1943). Here it was not a failure of the summer monsoon, but the Japanese seizure of Burma which bad been supplying rice to Bengal.
Ancient Era
These famines hase been a problem since ancient times. The historical record is extrodinarily limited. The earliest widely accepted Indian texts are the Edicts of Ashoka (3rd century BC). This is much lter thsn texts from Mesopotgamia. They were written in very early forms of middle-Indo-Aryan languages in the Brahmi script. And almost from the beginning we see references to famine, but very few details. Despite India's extensive historical record we know very little about early Indian famines. One of the earliest treatises on famine date back to this period. It is attributed to Kautilya, known as Vishnugupta (Chanakya). He wrote that a good ruler should build new forts and water-works and share his provisions with the people. If not he should turn over the country to a new ruler. [Drèze, p. 19.] The ancient Ashokan edicts of the Mauryan Empire describe Emperor Asoka's conquest of Kalinga, modern Odisha--southwest west of Calcutta (sbout 269 BC). Rock and pillar edicts reveal huge losses, some 100,000 as a rdsult of theWar. Even more subequently perished as a result, probably from wounds and famine. [Keay, p. 91.] This would have been a famine caused by war.
Medieval Era
Much more information is avaialble on mediueval India which now includes Hindu literature. Even so one has to intpret from fragementary informtion. It is almost certain that there were many more famines than the few which have beem identified. There is mention of a famine due to failure of rains in the Thanjavur district mentioned (7th century). [Periya Puranam]. Purana describes how Lord Shiva helped the Tamil saints Sambandar and Appar to provide relief from the famine. [Currey and Hugo, p. 72.] It is unclear if this describes governmental assistance. Another famine is presumed to have occurred in the same area several cenurues later. This is based on an inscription revealing times becoming bad", a village being ruined, and cultivation of food being disrupted in Landing (1054). [Currey and Hugo, p. 73.] The Tughlaq Dynasty under Muhammad bin Tughluq describes a famine in the Delhi era (1335–42). The Sultanate offered no relief to the starving people of Delhi. [Walsh, pp. 71 and 292.] There were also famines descrfibed in the oral traditionc, including long periods of famine. The Dvadasavarsha Panjam (Twelve-year Famine) of south India and the Durga Devi Famine of the Deccan (1396 - 1407). [Currey and Hugo, p. 72.] There were famines in the Deccan included the Damajipant famine of 1460 and a famine in 1520.
Moguhl Empire (1526-1857)
Brbur begn his invsion of india (1526). The Damajipant famine is said to have caused ruin both in the northern and southern parts of the Deccan (1629). The 1629-32 famine in the Deccan and Gujarat is believed to have been one of the worst in India's history 629-32). In less tha a year, some 3 million perished in Gujarat and 1e million in the Deccan (1631). And this was at a time when the poulatiomn was much smaller than the modern population. As a result of the length, it was not only the poor that perished. More famines ravished the Deccan (1655, 1682 and 1884). Another famine killed over 2 million (1702–04). The oldest famine in Deccan with local documentation sufficiently well-preserved for any real analytical study is the Doji bara famine (1791-92). Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao II ordered relief measures. He restricted the export of grain and imported ice in large quantities from Bengal. [Drèze, p. 12.] He scted through private tradets. There is now way oif knowing how effecrt ghe resultswere. This was the case throujghout the Mughal eras. period [Drèze, p. 12.] At the time, Kashmir was disputed by Mughal and Afghan rulers to fight. There were famines reprted there. Both distance and corruption made made Mughal relieff efforts in Kashnmir ineffective. [Kaw, p.64.] Probably more imprtant than lack of effective relkef efforts is that the Nughal land tax system actually contributed to the famines death tools by taking such a large share of the harvest that the peastry was unable to build up a stock pilre in he good years to survive a famine. [Kaw, pp. 67-68.] Another isdue is that the Mughal Empire was rapidly declining and the British East Inies Company was underminkinbits tax base.
Only with the beginning of British rule do we have detailed reporting on famines in the subconinent. This has caused many Indians to blame rhe famines in India on the British. The simple fact is that famines were endemic in India for millennia before the British arrived. The British can be criticised for inaction, but not causing the famines. And in fact, by the end of the 19th century the British for the first time had begun to bring famine under control, the 1943 Bebgal Fanmine beung the only exception. For nearly a century, the British in the guise of the British East India Company, lrgely comntrolled India, while the Delhi Muughal Emperor and Indian princes were the official ruling powers. There were some Mughil and British reports. The oldest famine in Deccan with surviving local documentation for real detailed analysis is the Doji bara famine (1791-92). Peshwa Sawai Madhavrao II orgasnized relief efforts for the population. He restricted the export of grain and imported rice in large quantities from Bengal. This involved private trading. The information during this period, however, is still very limited and inadequate to assess the famines and relief efforts. The Mughal overlapped with Brittish control until the mid-19th century. Mughal and Afghan rulers to fight famine in Kashmir were inadequste. The Mughal authorities according to one historian faced serious geographic obstacles as well as wll as being hampered by endemic corruption. [Kaw] Of course the the BEIC was steadily undermining the resources and the reach of the Delhi Mugal empeor. And the BEIC did not intervene seriously with famine relief efforts. The Doji bara famine was in the south nd the Khassmor famine in he north, but the most servere famine problem was in Bengal (modern Bangledesh). Mughal officials and other potentates took no long term measures to fight famines. The traditionsl land tax system throughout India were a factor in famine disasters. The system deprived the Indian peasantry of much of their boutiful harvest in the good year. They were this unble to build up stocks and wealth so they could survive famine years. [Kaw, 65–68.] Actual British rule began after the Great Mutiny (1857). The British Crown began firect rule known as the Raj (1858). One of he the justifications of British rule was a more systematic administration. Nothing could be done about the weather wehich affected harvests, but policies could be implemented that prevented famine and death. In this regard, the British absolutely failed (19th centutry). Laissez-faire attitudes like those associated with the Irish Potato Famine were a major part of the problem. A series of 19th century famines during the British Raj were caused by harvest failure. This only began to change in the late-19th crntury. The Great Famine of 1876-77 appears tio have spurred the Britisdh to action. The British had been pursuong policies similar to the Irush Poltao Famine. The Indian Famine Codes (1883) anf the development of a modern rail system began to end the tragedy of famine. Finally the British managded effective famine relief measures. There was, however, one last devestaing famine--the World War II Bengal Famine (1943). Here it was not a failure of the summer monsoon, but the Japanese seizure of Burma which bad been supplying rice to Bengal. The failure of the British authorities to action is one of the great inditments of the Raj and Britain's World War II effort. In fairness to the British, the Congress Party's focus on independence and its Quit India effort was not helpful. It is rather disingenuous to disrupt the British admministration and then complain that the British failed.
Independence
Sources
Currey, B and G. Hugo. Famine as a Geographical Phenomenon (GeoJournal library, Boston: D. Reidel, 1984).
Drèze, Jean. "Famine Prevention in India" in Jean Drèze and Amartya Sen (eds.) The Political Economy of Hunger: Famine prevention (Oxford: Oxford University Press US), 1991), pp. 32–33.
Kaw, Mushtaq A. "Famines in Kashmir, 1586–1819: The policy of the Mughal and Afghan rulers," Vol. 33 Indian Economic Social & History Review Vol. 33 (1996).
Keay, John. India: a History (New York: Grove Press, 2001).
Periya Puranam (7th century AD).
Walsh, Judith E. A brief history of India (Facts on File: 2006).
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