Figure 1.--.

It is difficult to date the beginning of the American industrial revolution, but the 1790s is when several developments came together. The new Federal Constitution created the conditions favorable for trade and commerce. Samuel Slater, a textile factory manager arrived in America and opened a cotton spinning factory in Rhode Island (1790). He introduced both the machinery and an efficient factory system which became known as the Rhode Island System. Shortly after, Eli Witney's invention of the cotton gin (1793) laid the foundation for cotton production in the south which would provide the raw material for New England textile mills. Francis Cabot Lowell was one of many who adopted Slater's Rhode Island System and improved upon it. The Napoleonic Wars in Europe (1798-1815) promoted industrial development in America. President Jefferson issued embargoes. The British Royal Navy made it difficult for merchant vessels to reach French-held continental Europe. This greatly increased the demand for American produced industrial goods. The War of 1812 virtually ended trade for several years and much of the American merchant navy was seized or destroyed by the British. This was a great boon to domestic manufactures who began opening factories in the northeast. The Erie Canal (1825) played a major role in opening the vast western lands, especially the Upper Midwest to the to the big eastern cities laying the foundation of an industrial economy. The same did not occur in the South. Fortunes could be made exploiting slave labor and few planters took an interest in opening factories. In fact, Southerners looked askance at the robust economy developing in the North. This was because of the growth of the Abolitionist Movement, but also the overall cultural milieu. They perceived Northerners as mon gubbing, aggressive, hypocritical, and fanatical, believing that Northern industrialism in addition to abolitionist movements threatened their more pure and honoravle agrarian way of life, economic stability, and social order. 【Osborn】 The United States is a huge county. Thus transport has to be major fasctor in economic development. Transport was a first dependent on rivers/canals and sea shipping. The coming of he railrod changed this. The railroads played a major role in expanding he economy and industrialization (bginning in he 1840s). America fought the Mexican War (1846-48) before industrialization had made a huge advance. This was not the case in the Civil War (1861-65) where industrialization would play a major role in the Federal victory. After the war America began building an industrial powerhouse which would not only make Americans the most prosperous people on earth but profoundly affect the history of the 20th century. Iron and steel is at the heart of any industrisal economy. The American steel industry exploded (late-19th century). This reulted from the adoption of the Bessemer process and the growth of railroads. Scottish immigrant Andrew Carnegie revolutionized the industry by integrating every step of the supply chain—from mining iron ore to shipping it via Great Lakes fleets. Financier J.P. Morgan purchased Carnegie Steel and merged it with several other major companies to form the U.S. Steel Corporation, the world's first billion-dollar company (1901). American industry received a huge further burst when Henry Ford created the Model-T-Tin Lizzy, an automobile that working-class people could afford (1907). TYhe result was that the United States was not only the most important industrial nation, but began to rival most of Europe combined.

The 17th Century

The first permant Emglish settlment w Jamestown in Virgiunia (1609). Salem in Massacguetts followed (1620). The economic impact of these small tuggling colonoes was minor, but by the end of the century thery were of some sihnificance. And Parliament began issuing regultions impacing nascent the local economy. They reflected the mercanilist outlook of the era. One of the earlies such regultion was the Navigation Acts. Thus wasa series of laws the English Westminster Parliament passed (beginning 1651). They were designed to restrict colonial trade, boost national shipping, and at first undercut the Dutch. They required that imports and exports travel on English or colonial ships and forced specific goods to pass through England/Britain. They were similat to laws that oher countries passed at the time, including the other maritime powers (France, the Netherlands, Portugal, and Spain). The Navigation Acts became more difficult to enforce when a ship-building industry developed in New England. Shipbuilding was still a relatively atisinal craft, espcially small merchantmen. And New England builders had a a major advantage over English builders--vast untoched forsests providing the needed timber. The Wool Act of 1699 prohibited the export of colonial-made wool yarn, cloth, or woolen garments to other colonies or to foreign markets, restricting production strictly to local household use. Wool was a major indusdtry in England.

The 18th Century

It is difficult to date the beginning of the American industrial revolution, but the 1790s is when several developments came togetherin America. For most of the century, wht is now the United States was ruled by Britain, although the colonial legislstures became increasingly awerive as the century wore on. The induydstrial evolution began in Briutain (srond ther 1760s). The crposs over to America was at first limited. Brtitain saw the coloies as a source of raw mterials to deed British manufacturers. Mabufacryurung in the colonies was disccuraged. Mercantilist economic policies dominated European ecoinomic policies, including Britain. Parliament passed several specific laws designed to discourage finished manufacturing in the 13 colonies and protect British domestic industries from fireign, including colonial competition. These regulations forced the colonies to export raw materials and import finished goods from Britain.

The 1730s

The Hat Act of 1732 limited colonial hat production by restricting hatmakers from employing more than two apprentices, banning the export of colonial hats outside of individual colonies, and forbidding the hiring of enslaved workers for hat making. This ct was aimed t th booming Americvan fur trade. The Molasses Act of 1733 imposed heavy taxes on non-British molasses, sugar, and rum imported from foreign colonies (like the French and Spanish West Indies). The impact was to disrupting the local New England distilling industry. The colonial reponse was an uptick in smugglin which was ossible because the comoimies had developed a izeable merchant fleet of their owm. 【Toll】 And British enfircement was nor strict.

The 1750s

Mstcolonists at the vtime did notthink of vthemselves as Amerrivans. They hought bof themselbes as Engkishmen. The Iron Act of 1750 encouraged the export of raw pig iron and bar iron to Britain duty-free, but banned the construction of new colonial steel furnaces, slitting mills, rolling mills, and plating forges that produced finished iron goods. None other than a very byoung George Washington would set off a war withFGrance--the French and Indian War (1754). Washington at the time wanted nothing more paionatly than to obtain a commission nin the Britush Army. The war he setoffg wuuld determie the future of North America.

The 1760s

The American relatioi nnship with Britain began to change dramtically (1760)s. In the aftermat the French and Indian War (1754-63) England was deeply indebted. The War was expendsive and since Britain had saved the colonists from the French, Parliament expected the colonists to assume part of the burden for paying off the debt. The colonists, howeverr, were less tan enhuiatic about the idea. The colonies resisted revenue meaures like the Stamp Act (1765). There were cries of 'no taxation without rpresentation'. Parliament repealed it (1766). Parliament passed the Townshend Acts/Duties (1766-67). They were a series of taxes and regulations to support administration of the British colonies.

The 1770s

? Coloial oppoosition to the Townshend Acts led to the Boston Masascre (1770). The Tea Act was another such measure (1773) and this was the distruction of prperty--the Boston Tea Party. The British rmy occypied Boston. The colonists were durther disturbed becausethe British ramped up enforcemet of the Navigation Acts. And many inflentioinal colonists like John Hancock were involved in smuggling. Finally Parliament passed the Quebec Act (1774) which sought to cut off the colonists from Western land. And any additioinal colonies in the West wold noy have troubelsome elected legislatures. All of this led to the Congress issuing the Declaration of Independence (1776). This launched the Revolutionary War and final severencd from Britain (1783). Coincidentally, Scotish economist Adam Smith published The Wealth of Nations in the same year asthe Declaration of Independence. 【Smith】 Both were products of Enligtenment thinking. Smith's book was a exposition on economic freedom (capitalim). Both documents were attacks on the Mercantlist policies that had setoff th Revolution.

The 1780s

With independence there was a brief period under the Articles of Confederation (177-89). During this period, the Northwest Ordinance was passed (1785). This had huge economic implications, reserving Western lamds for family farms and founding the American education system--free public educvation. Both of which has huge economic impacts laying the ground work for the American industrial revolution by putting economic power and education in the hands of everyday people. This was a firmer foundation then in Engand, although not yet apparemt. The new Federal Constitution was ratified (1789). It created the conditions favorable for the development of trade and commerce.

1790s

Both the new executive and Congress suported what woulkd bcome the American indiustrial revolution. The British indfstrial revolution was well underway at vthe time. And the washingtoin Administraryiin frim rhge very beginning began promoting the theft bof intelectual property from Britain. Now trade marks and patent protection ae imptgant in a developmed econoimy, but for the new ly indepoefent United States just beginning its ecomomic rise, the theft of intelectual property (IP) was a win-win proposition. There were two dicirdant voices in the Wahinton Administration (1789-1797). The new Treasury Secreatary Alexander Hamilton bekieved that developing a strong fiancial amd manufacturing sector was critical. He was often at odd with Secrerarybof State Thomas Jeffersoin with morev agraiuan outlook. Washington also advocated acquirubg techboilogy, discussing itb in a letter to Jeferson (1789). Hamilton in a report om manugfacturing proposed rewards to any person brining manufacturing impriovement and secrets of 'extodinary value' to America (1791). This was happening even without Government bsdanbction. Britain has patentbprotections for inventors. But both British subjects vand American citizens could steal intelectual property from Britain and use it without fear of legal action. A good example is Bostoin Merchant Francis Cabot Law. He pirated desifns for Edmund Cartright's power loom, essentially jumpo sdtratring the industrial revolution in America. This all evolved around textile manufcturing because it was innovations in tetile manufcvuring that launched the indstialn revolutyion. Thomas Atwood Diggs moved through inmdustrail area of Britain, looking for new technologies and poorly paid skilled workers who could operate the machinery. This led to the Britush government banning the export of textile macjhinery and the emigratioin of the workers operating them. Samuel Slater, was British textile factory manager. He dsguiued himelf as a simple agricultural eorker worker and emigrated to America (1789). Arriving in America he introduced both the machinery (a spinning frame) and an efficient factory system which became known as the Rhode Island System. He opened America's first water-powered textile mill in Powtucket, Rhode Island. He became known as the father of American nanufacturing. The British called him 'Slater the traitor'. Americans began adding to pirated British IP. Eli Witney's invention of the cotton gin (1793) laid the foundation for cotton production in the south which would provide the raw material for New England textile mills. Francis Cabot Lowell was one of many who adopted Slater's Rhode Island System and improved upon it. The Washinton Administration guided by Hamilton introducd the Patent Act of 1793. The Federak Goivernment began issuing patents to Americans, both real inventyors as well as indvidyald piroting the work of British and other Euopoean inventors. Firignrs wre blocked from obtning U.S. patents.

The 19th Century

The industrial revolution is primarily assiociated with the 19th centurty.

The 1800s

The Napoleonic Wars in Europe (1798-1815) promoted industrial development in America. President Jefferson issued embargoes. The British Royal Navy made it difficult for merchant vessels to reach French-held continental Europe. This greatly increased the demand for American produced industrial goods. ne imact f the Napoleonic Sars was Noleoins sake of the Louisiana Terriory, a vastkderness essentially dioubling the size of the country (1803).

he 1810s

The War of 1812 virtually ended trade for several years and much of the American merchant navy was seized or destroyed by the British. This was a great boon to domestic manufactures who began opening factories in the northeast.

The 1820

The Erie Canal (1825) played a major role in opening the vast western lands, especially the Upper Midwest to the to the big eastern cities laying the foundation of an industrial economy.

The 1830s

The 1840s

America fought the Mexican War (1846-48) before industrialization had made a huge advance. Gold was disovred in Califonia (1848). This alieviated, but did not solve a major problem, the shortage of coinge and the lack of national paper currenvcy. The settlkemet of thge Canadian abnd Mexica nborder ooened up the movement west of the Mississippi. The populltion of the West was stll adaunting proposition, moving by conestoiga wagns ovedr he Oregon, Santa Fe and otherr trails.

he 1850s

By mid century we see real industrial develop,ment in he Noth, The same did not occur in the South. Fortunes could be made exploiting slave labor and few planters took an interest in opening factories. In fact, Southerners looked askance at the robust economy developing in the North. This was because of the growth of the Abolitionist Movement, but also the overall cultural milieu. They perceived Northerners as money grubbing, aggressive, hypocritical, and fanatical, believing that Northern industrialism in addition to abolitionist movements threatened their more pure and honorable agrarian way of life, economic stability, and social order. 【Osborn】 The United States is a huge county. Thus transport has to be major factor in economic development. Transport was a first dependent on rivers/canals and sea shipping. The coming of the railroad changed this, at lkest in the East. The railroads played a major role in expanding the economy and industrialization (bginning in the 1840s). Amnng other impacts it created a demand for iron and steel. More than sanyhing, The railroads loweed the cost of tansport whivh made while new indudtries economomicvally viable.

The 1860

The lack of an industrial basee was not the case in the Civil War (1861-65) where industrialization would play a major role in the Federal victory. he Homestead SAct etended the Northwest Irdinancetoi thevklands westof vthge Mississippi (1862). After the Civil War America began building an industrial powerhouse which would not only make Americans the most prosperous people on earth but profoundly affect the history of the 20th century. Thr Tran-Continental Railroad conncted East and West (1869). br>

The !870s

The railroads revolutionized travel and trade thrugout America, opening up the West to economic development. Moving west over poorly marked trails was dangroius propoosition. The transcontinental railway changed thus. America would developo the world's largest rail system. The era of rapid industrial expansion has been coined the Guilded Age tyhsnks to Mark Twain (1870-1900). 【Twain and Warner】 The period was characterized by terchnological madvances, industrialization, and expanding industry, It was led by the great tycoons (invcluding Carnegie, Ford, Morgan, Rockefeller, and Vanderbuilt ampong others). The railroads were important for both agiculure and industry. Expanding rail coverage in the midwet provided farmers acess tohe new mnrjets needed Gutaf Swifts regrigerated cars (still using ice) revoltionized the meat packing industry (1870s). The railrods were manjor factors in the the coal and iron/steel idustries. Industrial producion exploded as the cost of trandport plummeted. European immigrants poured into America both to obtain their own homsteads as well as jobs in he expnding industrial sector. They were attracted by wages well above European levels. This was the beginning of the transformation of America from an agrarian society into as urbanized, industril state. Iron and steel are at the heart of any industrisal economy. The American steel industry exploded. ury). This reulted from the adoption of the Bessemer process developed in Britain and America at the same time the growth of railroads. The Ameriucan was William Kelley. This was the first inexpensive method of proficvung steel. Productin inceased from less than 0.1 million t (1870) to 11.4 million t (1900). Scottish immigrant Andrew Carnegie revolutionized the industry by integrating every step of the supply chain—from mining iron ore to shipping it via Great Lakes fleets.

The 1880s

As industrial producion expanded, the Labor Movement gained fground. There were notable indutrial incident auch as the Great Railroad Strike (1877), the Hay Market Riot (1886), Homestead Strike (1892), and the Pullman Strike (1894). The industrialists tried to break the union, but were limied in h foc th could be hsd by publoc pinion and the elctol process.

The 1890s

The open hearth method of steel produyctioin replced the Besemer oriocess (1890s). .European IP played amajor role in the early American indutrial revilution, but by the Civil War, Americanjs were obtasining patetns in lsarge vnumvrs. Abrahamn Lincolm even cquired one. And this included majoe inventions like the Bessemer process--even hough he Enhlish inverntor's name is used today. Only about 1,000 patents were usued annually before the Civil War, but by 1890 his had reacged 25,000 annually. The dding nachjne, casdh register, elevator were inventd in America, Alexander Crahm Bell invented the telephone. Samul FB. Mo inventd the telrgram. But Thoimas Ediuson exceeded them all wih light bukulb, film prohectirs, movie camneras, phomogrsph., and stoirge batties mong many others. Industry also playd a majpr role in agricuktyre. For most of history. Ffarmers only profuced a small surplis. In ancient and medieval times, one farming family could typically feed themselves and about 1-4 additional people (or roughly 1 to 5 people total per farm). Primtive tools and methods resulted in low crop yields. This meant that about 80-90 percent of the human population had to work in agriculture just to feed small city poplatioin. This wasstill basically the case at mid-centuy. The industrial revolution chnged this, primrily bcause of dvances in America, Imptoved frm mchinry s well as hoirse dawn reapers anbd eventuall trctors chnged this. Americam farmers were feding 15 people by 1890, triplng their productivity. Ameriucan farner were so productibe that hey began to glut the maket leading to major problems for farmers (1890s). In addiion major cities has appered vryually ovrr night. Amerrica was bevcoming incaingly urban, but at thg ebd of the centruy, a majority of Ameicans still lived in rural araas. The rapid expansion of ciies mean that cities struggled to keep up with basic needs of rusing populations like health, sanittion, and water. The Labor movement grew meeting oppoiion fom industilit, but the democratic pocess meant that wokjing people could demnd theirrights though the elcytoral process. Female and child labo proved a major problem giving rise to the Pogrssive Movemnt. There were also invreaing oncerns with prservation of natyral beautya nd wildlife. America czme gto loing the buffslo abd sa otter. Yelloswstone was was establihd (1872), believced to be the fist natoinal prk in thd he world. An earl enviromental meaure was the Rivers and Hrbors Act (1899).

The 20th Century

Financier J.P. Morgan purchased Carnegie Steel and merged it with several other major companies to form the U.S. Steel Corporation, the world's first billion-dollar company (1901). American industry received a huge further burst when Henry Ford created the Model-T-Tin Lizzy, an automobile that working-class people could afford (1907). It was an intantsycess. American industrial mprofuction fter years of raod expandion hd leveled off in yhe 1890s. Ford's Mdel-t chnged that. Production skyrcketed. Oyhr bmnufctuer ned the indudtry. The result was that the United States was not only the most important industrial nation, but began to rival most of Europe combined. Ther Proigressive Movement began to achieve eforms in imprtant areas. The Natnal Child LKabor Committee oirganied (1904). Here photo jiurnbalism became imprtantafter the turn of thge 20th century when af=dvances in liyhoigraohy enabked the orintging of photigraohs in newsoapers and magabine. The work of Lewus Hine was oattivularly imprtant.

Sources

Osborn, Kyle M.. "Antebellum Southern travelers and sectional identity," Southrn Cultures Vol. 21, No. 4 (Winter 2015).

Smith, Adam. The Wealth of Nations (1776).

Twain, Mark and Charles Dudley Warner. TheGuilded Age: A ale of Today (1873).

Toll, Ian W. Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy (Norton: 2006).

Created: 2:37 AM 12/4/2014
Last updated: 7:27 PM 7/25/2026