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The first important English explorer was Giovanni Caboto (1450-98), better known as John Cabot. He was Genoese. (Note the importance of the Genoese. As Venice defeated Genoa and limited its maritime commerce, many Genoese like Cabot and Cloumbus sought their fortunes in other countries.) Cabot set up as a merchant in Bristol. Soon accounts of Columbus' voyages reached England. Cabot with his navigational skills was commissioned by King Henry VII to explore the New World and find a passage to the Indies, the famed Northwest Passage. Cabot found Cape Breton Island off modern Nova Scotia and claimed it for England (1497). He explored the coast of Greenland in a second expedition (1498). The English watched in envy while Mary was queen, her husband was Phillip II of Spain. With the accession of Princess Elizabeth, however, this changed. Queen Elizabeth secretly authorized privateers to prey upon Spanish treasure ships and in the process not only seized important quantities of gold and silver, but accumulate increasing information about navigation and ocean seafaring. The English Sea Dogs (Drake, Hawkins, Raleigh, and others) were the bane of Philip's existence. Sir Francis Drake (1545?-96) was the greatest English explorers and one of its preminant naval heroes. Drake received his early training from Sir John Hawkins, a realative and participated in the raids on Spanish shipping. On one of thse raids, Drake led a small party accross the Istmus of Panama for his first view of the Pacific Ocean (1572). Queen Elizabeth, depite the fact England was at peace with Spain, approved and helped finance a secret expedition to target Spanish colonies along the Pacific coast of South America (1576). The Pacific at the time a virtual Spanish lake. Drake attacked Spanish cities from Chile north to Mexico and became known as El Drago. Drake and the Golden Hind reached Plymouth having curcumnavigated the globe (1580). The Spanish issued stinging diplomatic protests, but Queen Elizabeth knighted him. Not only were the English plundering his treasure fleets, but they were Protestants and Elizabeth was taking the English church in a decidedly Protestant direction. Philip's response was the Great Armada described above. The defeat of the Armada (1588) opened the way for more intensive English exploration and the founding of colonies. Henry Hudson (?-1611?) made four voyages of discovery primarily aimed at finding the Northwest Passage. On his third voyage (1609) he explored along the coast of North America 150 miles up what is now known as the Hudson River. On his fourth voyage abord the Half Moon (1610) Hudson still searching for the Northwest passage found what is now known as Hudson Bay where his crew mutined and Hudson and his son are believed to have perished.
The first important English explorer was Giovanni Caboto better known as John Cabot. He like Columbus was born into a modest Genoese family (1449). He was influenced by Paolo Toscanelli--the Sage of Florence who urged ebterprising navigators to sail west. (Note the importance of the Genoese. As Venice defeated Genoa in a struggle for naval supremecy in the Eastern Mediterranean. This limited its maritime commerce, many Genoese like Cabot and Cloumbus sought their fortunes in other countries. He first moved to Venice where he engaged in voyages in the eastern Mediterranean and some as far afield as England. He made a pilgrimage to Mecca in an attemp to learn information about the spice trade. As a young man, Cabot traveled extensively in Europe, concocting money-raising schemes and fleeing creditors. He also acquired navigational and maritime skills. One historian believes that he and Columbus agreed to collaborate in Atlantic explorations (1483). [Boyle] Cabot set up as a merchant in Bristol. Soon accounts of Columbus' voyages reached England. Cabot with his navigational skills was commissioned by King Henry VII to explore the New World and find a passage to the Indies, the famed Northwest Passage. Cabot sailing in the tiny Matthew found Cape Breton Island off modern Nova Scotia and claimed it for England (1497). This became the basis of England's claims to North America. Cabot in his second voyage sailed in awell-equipped fleet (1498). It is believed that he explored the coast of Greenland where he disappeared. His fate is unknown. At least one author believes he may have sailed south and run into the Spanish in the Caribbean. [Boyle]
Funding maritime expeditions was expensive. Thus the English did not immediately launch upon voyages of discovery. The English from their northern lattitudes continued to be fixated on the northwest passage to Asia. Sir Hugh Willoughby is not well known today in the pantheon of the pioneeeriun English navigators, but he unlike Cabot was English and played an imprtant role. He was a gentleman feerless soldier. He knew next to nothing about seafaring and navigation. He volunteered to lead the first important all English expedition in the final year of Edward's VI's reign. Willoughby led his little fleet of three merchant vessels out from London into the North Sea and headed north (Sprin 1533). The ships became separated in a storm and this their fates varied widely. One eventually returned to England with fabulous tales of the Court of Ivan the Terrible. One historian writes, "People in the small settlements nearby cme forward freely, offering the Englishmen food and other commoditities. The locals first came out in small boats to the Edward, and members of the English crew were able to row ashore. But apologetically, the Pomors professed that they were forbidden to trde or buy foreign goods without explicit permission from their ruler, the English wanted to know, who instilled such fear and obedience in a small and distant community?" [Evans] The other two vessels got trapped in the ice. The surviving captain's log book recounts their ordeal.
Spanish Conquistadores conquered the Aztec and Inca Empires in the first half of the 16th century. The result of the booty and the working of existing as well as new mines was a a huge influx of gold and silver bullion flowing into Europe. The impact on the European economy was immense altering the course of history that still affect us today. Columbus and other early expolrers encountered small quantities of gold in the Caribbean, but fantastic accounts of a Kingdom of Gold began to circulate in Europe--the legendary El Dorado. He was a king who was so wealthy that he covered himself with gold dust every day and dove into a lake. Political factors also drove the European conquest. German Emperor and Spanish King Charles V desperately needed gold bullion. Charles had taken out large loans to bribes the electors that made him Holy Roman Emperor (1519). He also faced a costly war with the Turks. The Ottomons moving north took Belgrade (1521). Next they conquered Hungary (1526). Soon they had reached Vienna, the center of Hapsburg rule (1526). Charles not only faced the Turks, but the Protestant Reformation in Germany. This forced Charles to seek even more loans. One way in which Charles paid his loans is by granted licenses to pursue treasure in the Americas. Thus conquistadors financed by European banks descended upon the New World, scouring every corner for the legendary El Dorado. Hernan Cortez defeated the Aztec ruler Montezuma in Mexico (1520) and sent the first large shioment of gold objects back to Spain. Charles V immediately smelted them down to bullion. Francisco Pizarro demanded a ransom for Inca ruler Atahuallpa and obtained a vast treasure of gold and silver objects (1532). The Spanish first simply seized good and siklver objects from the native Americans, in effect looted the artistic trasures of entire civilizations. Historians estimate that about $140 million work of gold and silver objects were obtained from Peru alone between 1531 and 1540. [Hoopes] Then they used the indeginous people as slaves to produce more bullion from existing and new mines. The American treasure, however, quickly passed through Charles' treasury. It served to enable him to take out even more loans. Charles by 1551 had borrowed 14.4 million ducats at interests rates approaching 50 percent. [Hoopes] Charles army did stop the Ottomans from moving further into Christian Europe, but it could not cintain the Protesrant Revolution. But the impact of the gold is much larger. The American gold helped finance Renaissance art. As much of went into the pockets of bankers, it played an important role in the expanding European economy in the countries that had financed Charles. The gold also financed the illfated Spanish Armada unleashed on England by Charles's son Phillip II (1588). Some of the gold flowed into other European treasuries as other maritime powers (England, France, and the Netherlands) began preying upon Spanish treasure ships. Some of the gold can be seen in gold leaf and trasures of the churches across Europe. But much of the rest of the gold is difficult to trace with precission. What is known is that the American gold significantly increased the gold stock of Europe, resulting in both inflation and an expansion of economic activity.
English merchants watched in envy as Spain grew rich from her new colonies. Queen Mary I (1553-58) attempted to restore Catholocism. She also married Phillip II of Spain. She demanded correct relations with the Spanish. With the accession of Princess Elizabeth (1558), however, this changed. Queen Elizabeth no longer prevented English merchats from tradeing with Spanish colonies which was a violation of Spanish law. And one of the commodtes most in demand was captive Africans who could be enslaved to work in the Caribbean sugar plantations. Elizabeth also secretly authorized privateers to prey upon Spanish treasure ships. This was a natural development from trade as English ships in the Caribbean became targets of the Spanish Navy. The privateers not only seized important quantities of gold and silver, but accumulated increasing information about navigation and ocean seafaring. The English Sea Dogs (Drake, Hawkins, Raleigh, and others) were the bane of Philip's existence and a major factor in his decesion to send the Great Armada in an expedition to invade England.
Sir Francis Drake (1545?-96) was the greatest English explorers and one of its preminant naval heroes. Drake received his early training from Sir John Hawkins, a realative and participated in the raids on Spanish shipping. On one of thse raids, Drake led a small party accross the Istmus of Panama for his first view of the Pacific Ocean (1572). Queen Elizabeth, depite the fact England was at peace with Spain, approved and helped finance a secret expedition to target Spanish colonies along the Pacific coast of South America (1577). The Pacific at the time a virtual Spanish lake. Drake attacked Spanish cities from Chile north to Mexico and became known as El Drago. Drake and the Golden Hind reached Plymouth having curcumnavigated the globe (1580). The Spanish issued stinging diplomatic protests, but Queen Elizabeth knighted him. These and other privateering attacks led to war with Spain.
Not only were the English plundering his treasure fleets, but they were Protestants. Philip had married Queen Mary I and they hoped to return England to the True Church. They filed, however, to produce an heir and Mary's methods alienated a wide swathe of the English people. She almost executed the Princess Elizabeth. Mary's untimely death brough Elizabeth to the throne. Elizabeth's Protestantism meant that as along as she reigned there would be no Catholic revival. Religion was a powerful influence in Philip's world view. His response was the Great Armada. The defeat of the Armada (1588) opened the way for more intensive English exploration and the founding of colonies. It was also the begininning of England's naval dominance.
Henry Hudson (1565?-1611) was one of the most important English explorers. We know next to nothing about his early life, but he probably served as a ship's boy. Like many explorers of his age, he was primarily concerned with finding a Northwest pasage to provide an easy trade connection between northern Europe and Asia. His first expeditions were made in the survice of Muscovy. He is best known for his expeditions to North America. He made four voyages of discovery primarily aimed at finding the Northwest Passage. He thus explored the northwestern Atlantic along the coast of North America and the Arctic Ocean On his third voyage (1609) he explored along the coast of North America 150 miles up what is now known as the Hudson River. On his fourth voyage abord the Half Moon (1610) Hudson still searching for the Northwest passage found what is now known as Hudson Bay where his crew mutined and Hudson and his son are believed to have perished. Today the Hudson River, Hudson Strait, and Hudson Bay are all named for Hudson.
Boyle. David. Towards the Setting Sun: Columbus, Cabot, Vespucci, and the Race for America (Walker & Company, 2008), 421p.
Evans, James. Tudor Adventurerers: The Voyage of Discovery that Transformed Englnd (2014), 400p.
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