The Cold War: Country Trends--China

Figure 1.--The Communists won the Civil War and declared the People's Republic (1949). They proceed to launch a comprehensive effort to remake China in a Marxist image. The changes were enormous. Wwll-to-do peoole and land lords were shot, this included mny peaasnts who had only small holdings. Factories as well as all businesses were seized by the Goverment land oners. The Communists suceeded in making Chinese sociery egaltarian--essentially everyone was reduced to poverty. What they did not do wa to create a modern indusrrial society. In fact millions starved in Mao's attempt to instantly transform China -- the Great Leap Forward. Mao was able to create propaganda extranvaganzas claiming to be a land of happy workers and peasants as in this 1970 demonstration during the Cultural Revolution. Beautiful smiling children with flowers on a stage, however, is not the same as an economy creating food and goods need by a population. What they could not do is achieve economic success. When Chinese officials began criticising Mao, he staged the Cultural Revolution to silence them by doing away with many. When that failed, leaders like Deng Xiaoping again began asking question and wondering why the Asian Tigers (Hong Kong, Sinapore, South Korea, and Taiwan) were doing so well and China was doing so poorly.

The Cold War is often seen as beginning in Europe after World war II and then spreading to Asia as the conflict betwwn the Nationalists and Communists broke out into open warfare. This is a simplistic view and simply reflects the inbility of Democratic Government to recognize the war launched by Lenin and his associates when they seized power in Russia (1917). The Communists also began the Cold war in Asia in the aftermath of World war I. emerged victorious and the Nationalists retreated to Formosa (Taiwan). The Uniterd States at first tried to negotiate an end to the fighting and when this failed did not intervene. The Nationalists mananaged to prevent a Chinese invasion wiithout American intervention. American policy toward Communist China was not outright hostility. The Truman Administration was willing to seek an accomodation. It is at this time that the Cold War turned into a shooting war in Korea, probably at Stalin's instigation wsithout consulting the Chinese. And the Chinese intervened to save the North Korean regime (1950). The front was finally stabilized near the old border. American fore power caused massive Chinese caualties. As a result of Chinese intervention, American policy toward China hardened. Truman ordered the U.S. Pacific fleet prevented the Communists from crossing the Taiwan Straits. Mao pursued a radical Communist program that findamentally changed China. Efforts like the Great Leap Forward (1957-60), however, were economic disasters. Millions perished in the resulting famine. They seized control of Tibet. The economy stagnated under Communism in sharp contrast to the capitalist ecomomnies of the asian Tigers (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore). The Cold War became more complicated after the Chinese-Soviet split (1961). The Chinese fought a war with India over the Himalyan border (1962). Opposition prompted Mao to launch the Cultural Revolution (1966-76) which did enormous ecomomic damage. With the death of Mao, China began to rethink the relationship with America and the ecomnomic sysyem.. This raprochment was pursued by the Nixon Administration (1970s). Only with the introduction of free market reforms by Deng Xiaoping did the Chinese economy begin to grow and begin to bring prosperity to China. After the Cold War, the central question concerning China is if a free market economy will eventually led to the growth of a democratic government.

Origins of the Cold War

The Cold War is often seen as beginning in Europe after World war II and then spreading to Asia as the conflict betwwn the Nationalists and Communists broke out into open warfare. This is a simplistic view and simply reflects the inbility of Democratic Government to recognize the war launched by Lenin and his associates when they seized power in Russia (1917). The Communists also began the Cold war in Asia in the aftermath of World war I. This nascent Cold War was recognized by some in the 1930. It is one reason the British were low to respond o the chllenge psed by Hitler and the NAZIs. The Brotish were unsure if Hitler or Stalin ws the greater threat. Of course developments in Asia were further removed from the policy makers and the public mind.

Chinese Communist Party (1921)

The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) was founded after World War I (1921). Iwas not just a political party, but a revolutiinary movement. It came out of the May Fourth Movement (1919). It rejected both traditional Chinese society as well as Western capitalism and liberal democrracy. The CCP looked at Marxism as the solution to China's backwardness and was enboldened by Bolshevik victory in the Russian Revolution and Civil War (1917-21). Almost uniquely among world Communist parties, however, the CCP was the one iportant national party organization that the Bolshevik secret police groups (beginning with the Cheka) were unable to penetrate and gain control. Important founders were Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu who emerged from the turmoil following the fall of Chinese Empire. Initial successes were achieved by leaders like Mao Zedong, Liu Shaoqi, and Li Lisan who began organizing workers in important cities. The CCP was an almost exclusively an urban movement. Virtually all the initial organizing activitives were in the cities. Mao himself was of peasant orgins, but became a Communist because hevpursued an education and read Marxist books. The CCP joined with the Nationalist/KMT Party (1924) and became an important part of the KMT coalition. Both parties had revolutionary ideas. The alliance was sucessful in helping to unify China from war lord control. KMT leader Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) launced a major campaign against the CCP (1927). The Oarty was driven underground. Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai emerged as the primarry leaders as CCP activists escaped from the cities as part of thevLong March (1934-35) into the remote countryside. This began a shift from the urban proleterit to the rural peasantry, a major shift from Marxist orthodoxy.

Unification (1920s)

Sun Yat-sen's republican revolutionary movement was damaged by Yuan Shikai's attempt to become a new emperor. The student-led May Fourth Movemnent help revive the fortunes of the Nationalists. After Yuan's death a governent survived in Beijing. A succession of warlords replaced Yuan. It still was the government recognized by foreign powers. Sun Yat-sen returned from his refuge in Japan and helped restablished a rival government in Guangzhou (Canton). He managed to obtain support from southern warlords. He restablished the KMT (October 1919). A wave of patriotic, nationlist sentiment spread throughout China after World War I. The Chinese were increasingly resentful of the foreign concessions, but now the Japanese with their Twenty-One Demands bore the brunt of Chinese ire. The war lords were another matter of concern. Sun Yat-sen and the KMT (republicans/nationalists) had considerable popular support, but little military strength. The result was a three-way struggle for power among warlords, Nationalists and Communists. Sun had become president of the southern Guangzhou government. Sun become president of the southern government (1921). Sun spent his last years trying to strengthen his government in the south and unify the country. Sun attempted to obtain help, especially military assistance, from the Western democracies. None were prepared to assist. Sun and the KMT still had the taint of revolutionaries. Sun eventually turned to the Bolsheviks which has just emerged victorious in the Russian Civil War. The Bolsheveks because they were actively fomenting revolution were being isolated by the major world powers. China offered an opportunity to break out of that isolation and help create a friendly power along its long border. Soviet propaganda issued strongly-worded attacks on Western imperialism along with criticism of capitalism. The Soviets had a quandry. The KMT was anti-imperialist, but it was not a Communist Party. And there was a small Communist Party in China--the CCP. The Bolsheviks decided on a dual policy, supporting both Sun and the KMR as well as the small CCP. The Soviets hoped that the two consolide, but saw advantages with whoever managed to unify China. Thiswas the beginning of the dpic struggle between the Nationalists and the Communists. The alliance between the KMT in Guangzhou and the southern warlords btoke down (1922). Sun fled to Shanghai. Sun as the leader of the not very sucessful KMT, accepted Soviet aid. Sun by that time saw that Soviet support was critical. Sun obtained a pledge from a Soviet representative in Shanghai that the Soviet Union would provide assistance for Chinese unification (1923). Soviet advisers, including Comintern agent Mikhail Borodin, quickly began arriving in China. They attempted to reorganize the KMT along the lines of the SovietbCommunist Party. The Comintern, essentially an agency of the Soviet secret police, ordered the CCP to cooperate with the KMT. They were to join the KMT, but retain their CCP identity. Sun was thus able to arrange an alliance with the still small CCP. He then began a campaign to supress the warlords and unifying China. Sun died of cancer (1925). Chiang Kaishek, the KMT military commander seized control of the party. Chiang launched the well-known "Northern Expedition". He campaigned from Guangzhou (Canton) north to to Shanghai. This essentially unified Southern China with the great bulk of the country's popilation. Most importantly, the KMT won control of the Lower Yangzi. Chiang also seized many foreign concessions. Chiang who did not trust the Communists anyway, fell out with them and launched a campaign against the CCP (1927). One of the CCP members who managed to escape was Mao Zedong.

Chinese Civil War

The Communists were an important part of the KMT coalition. They had a strong following among workers in many cities. Chiang who did not trust the Communists, fell out with them. The KMT and the Communist split was the beginning of the Civil War. Ching launched a military campaign against the CCP (1927). One of the CCP members who managed to escape was Mao Zedong. The Communists were in the 1920s a largely urban movement. Mao for example while of peasant orgins, became a Commiunist because he worked in a library where he read Marxist books. To escape the KMT campaign against the CCP, the Communists abandoned their urban base and fled to the countryside. Chiang with German military advisors tried to cut them off and destroy them. Chiang's goal was tgo "eliminate the cancer of Communism." He almost complete this, but the Communuists broke out from the KNT military encirclement (1934). The Communists were almost completely defeated. Suronded by KMT forces, Mao led the Long March and established the Communists in northwestern China. They began with about 100,000 people. After a year and 6,000 miles they were down to 6,000-8,000 people.

Second Sino-Japanese war

Chang also had to contend with the Japanese who proved even more of a threat and in the 1930s a long war with Japan began. The Japanese inherited many of the concessions of the German and Austrains, including extensive concessions in Manchuria. The Japanese army in Manchuria seized the province (1931). The Nationalists did not contest this action militarily. They did protest diplomatically and took Japan to the League of Nations. The Japanese invaded China proper from Manchurian bases (1937). This was the begining of a long dreadful war. Japan occupied Chinese coastal areas and important cities, except for the European concessions. The Jpanese persued the War with unbelievable brutality. The Rape of Nanking was one of the most barabarous attrocities of modern times. China fought the Japanese alone for several years. American support for China was limited by isolationist sentiment and American neutrality laws. President Roosevelt guiding public opinion managed to provide some support including the Flying Tigers in 1941. It was American insistence that Japan end its aggression in China and opposition to other incursions in the Pacific that convinced the Japanese that war with America was necessary. The Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought America into the War (1941). After America entered the War, more substantial support flowed to China. The Japanese occupied areas of China were only liberated after the Japanese surrender in World War II (1945).

Mao and Stalin

A reader asks, "Do you know why Stalin did not embrace Mao and the Chinese Communists at the start? Was it because of different views of Communism?" This is of course a good question. Soviet activitie in Xinhijng is one example about the complex retalionship beteen Stalin, Chiang, and Mao. The historical record is very clear, Stalin did not fully embrace Mao and the Chinese Communists. It is difficult to know what was on Stalin's mind. He never left a political tretise like Hitler's Mein Kampf. I would be very careful, however about ascribing ideology to his policies. After all in his right to power he purged so call 'right deviaionists'. And once in power he went after the left. As far as I can tell it was pirely a matter of personal power. The KMT was a revolutionary group which was after World War I focused on ending the European concessions. Thus they were a natural ally of the Soviets and at first Mao and the Communists wre a part of the KMT. Later even after supressing the Mao's Communists, the KMT were a useful ally against the Japanese, keeping the bulk of the Jpanese Army occupied. As for Mao and the Communists, they were locally grown Communists beyond the cntrol of Moscow. Stalin did not trust Communists he did not control, and only to a degree Communists he did control. Thus an kindedent Communist movement, especially in a large country close to the Soviet Union was a threat to Stalin. In addition, Stalin had terrtoril ambitions in China. Taking territory from the KMT was one hing. taking it from a fraternal Comminit state a more different matter. Mao generally accepted Stalin's lack of enthuiasm, recognizing his leadership of the world Communist movement or at least not disputing it. This changed after Stalin's death (1953). Ge no longer accepted Soviet leadership, especially Khruchev's leadership leading to the Cold War Sino-Soviet split.

Renewed Civil War

The KMT and the CPC formed a Second United Front to resist the Japanese invasion (1937). In fact the great bulk of the resistance ti the Japanese came from the KMT forces. And the Communists continued the Civil War at a low level. The war with Japan greatly weaknened the Nationalists. Their best divisions were destroyed in the early operations to defend Shanghai and other cities. Finally theu had to retreat into the hinterland where the Japanese had difficulty brining their superior forces to bear on the KMT forces. And KMT operations to secure food, resources, and men caused terrible suffering in the countryside, undermined their relationship with the pesantry, tenous at best even before the War. The Communists who generally avoided combat with the Japanese in contrast were more judicious in their contacts with the peasantry. The Soviets quickly smashed the Japanese army in Manchuria The Soviets quickly destroyed the Japanese Kwantung Army which had been depleted to support the Pacific War and preparing for the expected invasion of the Home Islands. This left the Soviets in controlm of Manchuria. They turned massive quantities of arms over to the CPC. Some 0.7 million Japanese surrendered to the Soviets. General MacArthure after the Japanese surrender (August 15) ordered the Japanese in China to surrender to KMT not CPC forces. Chiang realized that he lacked the resources to prevent a CPC takeover of Manchuria following the scheduled Soviet departure. He negiotiated an arrangement with the Soviets to delay their withdrawal until he had moved enough of the KMT Army, including many of his best-trained men and modern material into Manchuria. The Soviet Red Army blocked the KMT troops. The United States airlifted KMT units to occupy the main cities of Manchuria and northern China. Much of the countryside, however, was dominated by the CPC. The KMT launced an offensive to strengthen their positionn in the north (November 15). The Soviets spent the extra time given themn in Manchuria to dismantling the extensive Japanese Manchurian industrial base and transporting it back to the Soviet Union. Some estimates value the industrial pilage at up to $2 billion dollars. [Lilley] United States Marines were used to hold Beiping and Tianjin against a possible Soviet incursion, and logistic support was given to Nationalist forces in north and northeast China. The CPC forces for the first time were now well armed. The United States tried to mediate the war, but this was a pipe dream evolving from a limited knowledge of China. General of the Army George Catlett Marshall began efforts to mediate a solution to the Chinese civil war. General of the Army George Catlett Marshall (November 1945). The KMT and CPC forces renewed the civil war in earnest (1946).

Korean War (1950-53)

American policy toward Communist China was not outright hostility. The Truman Administration was willing to seek an accomodation. It is at this time that the Cold War turned into a shooting war in Korea, probably at Stalin's instigation wsithout consulting the Chinese. The North Koreans Army crossed the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950 to forcibly unify Korea. The Soviets had provided modern weapons in great quantity to the North Koreans. Embolded by the Communist victory in China during 1948-49, Kim-il-Jong obtained Stalin's approval for the attack. President Truman immediately ordered war material be provided the South Koreans and then air support for the South Korean Army. Seoul fell within days. Truman went to the United Nations which, because the Soviets were boycotting the Security Council, approved a military opperation to repell the North Korean attack. Truman than ordered American military intervention. The Soviets had helped the North Koreans build a powerful military force. The United states after World War II had significantly scled back its conventional military force. As a result, the North Koreans pushed the South Koreans back to a small perimiter around the southern port of Pusan. Generl MacArthir from Japan organized an amphibious invasion at Inchon which caught the North Koreans between two forces. North Korem resistance collapsed and MacArthur rushed north accross th 38th parallel to completely defeat and occupy North Korea. Tuman was skeptical, but MacArthur assured him that Chinese warnings to intervene were bluff. They were not an America norces approaching the Yalu River were mauled by a massive Chinese attack. For a while it looked like the Chiese would tota;lly defeat the U.N. forces, but the front was finally stabilized north of Seoul. What followed was 2 years of stalemate which became a major political issue. Peace talks with the Communists were frustrating. Th major issue became the Communist demand that all POWs be returned, even the ones who did not want to be repatriated. Finally a ceasefire was reached. Stalin died in 1953. Eisenhower became president in 1953 and fulfilling a campaign promise, went to Korea. The armistice went into force (July 27, 1953). More than 3 million Koreans were killed as a result of the War. Millions more were made homeless refugees. About 1 million Chinese soldiers are believe to have been killed. American casualties totaled nearly 55,000.

Taiwan

As a result of Chinese intervention, American policy toward China hardened. Truman ordered the U.S. Pacific fleet prevented the Communists from crossing the Taiwan Straits.

Radical Communism

The success of the Communist Revolution led by Mao-Tse-Tung in 1949 brough a massive social change. The Communists iniitated radical reforms aimed at bringing China into the 20th century. Some efforts were effective, others caused imense suffering. Contacts with the West, however, were curtailed as China looked to the Soviet Union and state planning to run their economy. Businesses and private land holdings were nationalized. Everyone was incouraged to think alike and dress alike. The desire was to put everyone on an equal footing. Mao pursued a radical Communist program that findamentally changed China. Efforts like the Great Leap Forward (1957-60), however, were economic disasters. Millions perished in the resulting famine. They seized control of Tibet.

Sino-Soviet Split (1961)

The Cold War became more complicated after the Chinese-Soviet split (1961). One might expect the Soviets to have been strongly supportive of the Chinese Communists. Stalin's early relationwith the Chinese Communists were mixed. There were a range of crosscurrents that complicated fraternal ideological afinity. National interests led Stalin to question the growth of a strong Chinese state which would border lightly populated Siberia. And Stalin sensed from an early stage that he would not be able to control the Chinese Communist Party, unlike the Communist parties in Europe and other countries. And as concern with the Japanese grew, Stalin saw the Kumoingtung as a way of resisting Japanese military expansion. The Comminist victory in the Civil War was, however, presented to the world as another step in the inevitable triumph pf Communism. Mao traveled to Moscow to negotiate the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance, and Mutual Assistance (1950). China under the agreement confirmed certain rights to Soviet Union. One example was continued use of the naval base at Luda in Liaoning Province. The Soviets committed to military support, shipments of modern weapons, and a major economic and technological assistance program. This included technical advisers and machinery. China did not question Soviet leadership of the world communist movement. Many Chinese Communists at the time saw the Soviet Union as the model for development, especially because the Soviets turned largely rural Russia into an industrial power. China's participation in the Korean War (1950-53) strengthen China's position in the Communist world as they and not the Soviets intervened directly to support the North Koreans. The U.N.-sponsored trade embargo forced China to trade primarily with the Soviet Bloc. At this stage in their relationship, the Chinese were more closely associated and dependent on a foreign power than at any early period in history. Gradually strains in the Sino-Soviet alliance gradually began to surface. A range of issues were involved, including ideology, security, and economic development. Ironically one factor was the death of Stalin (1953). While Stalin's approach was to control other Communist movements, in China Stalin had immense prestige because of his defeat of Hitler and confrontaltional approch to the Western capitalist countries. Chinese leaders were disturbed by Nikita Khrushchev policies, especially deStalinization announced at the 20th Party Congress (1956). The idea of peaceful coexistence with the Capitalist West was another problem. The Soviet Sputnik launch seems to have strongly impressed Mao as did other early Soviet successes in the Space Race. Like many in the developing world, Mao saw these Soviet achievements as proof that Marxism was a scientific system and that because of this, the world balance of power had shifted in the communists' favor. As he phrased it, "the east wind prevails over the west wind". As a result, rather than Khrushchev's peaceful coexistence, Mao wanted a more militant policy toward the Capitalist West. And other aspects of the Soviet relationship alienated Mao and other Chinese leaders. High on the list was what was seen as a lack of support for the recovery of Taiwan. The Soviets made no effort to placate the Chinese. A Soviet proposal for a joint naval arrangement offended the Chinese (1958). It was couched so as to put China in a subordinate position. The Soviets (who had close relations with India) maintained strict neutrality during the Sino-Indian border disputed (1959). And centrally, the Soviets proved reluctant to honor its commitments to provide nuclear weapons technology. One indication of declining Soviet influnence was Mao's Great Leap forward, a significant departure from the Soviet economic model (1957-60). The first major step in the break between the two Communist powers was the Soviet decesion to withdraw military and technical advisers (1960). For China, the break with the Soviets was not unlike its break with the West after its victory in the Civil War. The Chinese were determined to pursue a policy of self-reliance and independence of action. This was more important than the benefits of technical and economic assistance. And Mao no longer was willing to be seen as Moscow's junior partner.

Indo-Sino War (1962)

The Chinese fought a war with India over the Himalyan border (1962). The short 1962 Sino-Indian War is also called the Sino-Indian Border Conflict by those desiring to deephasize this conflict in the high Himilayas. The long remote 3,225-kilometer-long Himalayan border between India and Tibet was not well defined. It inincluded a western area (west of Nepal), short central area (between Nepal and Bhutan), and eastern area (east of Bhutan). The border was not a significant problem until Cimmunist China seized control of Tibet (1959). The border was not the only problem and some authors refer to it as a pretext. Border incidents occurred after the 1959 Tibetan uprising against the Chinese. India granted asylum to the Dalai Lama. They also initiated a Forward Policy, placing outposts along the border. Several were located north of the McMahon Line (eastern border area). This was the eastern portion of the Line of Actual Control proclaimed by Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1959. When diplomatic efforts to resolve the ussue stalled, the Chinese without warning launched simultaneous offensives both in Ladakh and aklso along the McMahon Line (October 20, 1962). This occurred during the Cuban Missile Crisis and this received relatively little oress coverage. Chinese troops drove Indian forces back in both border areas. They took Rezang la in Chushul (western area) and Tawang (eastern area). The war ended as abruptly as it began. China declared a ceasefire (November 20). And they withdrew from the disputed area. The Sino-Indian War is notable for two militaruy aspects. It ws the most significant war fought at such high sltutudes meaning exceeding harsh consitions. Most of the fighting occurred at altitudes over 4,250 metres (14,000 feet). And as this was in exceedingly remote areas, both sides encountered serious logistical problems. Both countries decided to limit the scale of the conflict. Neither used either its navl or air forces in the fighting. The Chinese invasion surprised the Pakisranis as much as th Indians, who also had a Himilayan border with Tibet. The poor perfirmance of the Indian Army probably led the Pkistanis to believe that a well executed strike might suceeded in seizing Kashmir before the Indians could respond.

Annexing Tibet (1959)

Tibet was conquered by China (1720). China has since claimed soverignity, although often only nominally. This changed temporarily with the fall of the Manchu (Qing) Dynasty (1912). Local authoritie disarmed and expelled the Chinese soldiers. Tibet then declared its independence (1913). Tibet was able to maintain its independence until the victiory of the Chinese Communists in the Civil War (1949). Chinese Communists soldiers during the Korean War invaded and occuupied Tibet (1951). The Chinese abolished the Tibetian Government (1959). China now rules Tibet as the western and central Tibet as the Tibet Autonomous Region. As is the practice of Communist regimes, the 'Automous' aspect of the name is pure fiction. The eastern areas were largely annexed to the Chinese provinces of Sichuan and Qinghai provinces. The Chinese Government to increase its control over Tibet and promoted the migrantion of Han Chinese into Tibet. The Tibetian pobulation is very traditional and there have been perodic uprisings put down by the Chinese. Exile groups led by the Dali-Llama are active, primarily in India.

Economic Stagnation

Communists in both Europe and Asia knew a great deal about Marxist Ideology and virtually nothing about economics. The Chinese like the Soviet economy stagnated under Communism. After two decades of economic failure, especially the Great Laeap Forward, some Chinese officials began questiin Mao's leadership. His resoinse was the Cultural Revolutiion. Mao's response was the Cultural Revolution, essebtually mobilizing brain-washed children to use children to destroy his critics in the Party and Government. It would mean another loss decade. And the rise of the Asian Tigers (Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Singapore) whose stunning economic success in sharp contrast to China's desperate poverty. The capitalism of the Asian Tigers achieved the rapid economic development that Socialism and Communism promosised but conspoiuously failed to achieve.

Cultural Revolution (1966-76)

Another major even more radical change occurred during the Cultural Revolutuion (1966-76), one of the most violent and tragic episodes in modern Chinese history. It was inspired by China's leader Mao Tse Tung and known as the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Mao thought that the Chinese people were losing their revolutionary zeal. He was also stung by criticism of his Great Leap Forward (1959) and declining influence in the Government. Mao conceived of a cutural revolution to destroy once and for all the culture of pre-Communist China and to gain absolute control of the Goivernment. Major Chinese traditions such as respect for ones's elders and the value of scholarship in particular were attacked. Children were often forced to renounce their own parents. Mao sought to reinvigirate party cadre with a revolutionay commitment, to replace many in positions of rank and privilege who were no sufficently inspired, to punish the cadre for the criticisms that were lodged against Mao's disastrous Great Leap Forward experiment, and to continue attacks against the intelligentia who he thought were not sufficently committed to the Revolution. Important leaders including Peng Zhen to Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping who were not sufficently loyal to Mao suffered during the Cultural Revolution, now just as the intelligentia and those who hadn't embraced Mao's grand plan. Mao's power reached unprecedent levels during this period in a xenephobic and often irrational cult of personality, symbolized by a Little Red Book consisting of his quotations, ubiquitous buttons that bore his portrait, and statues virtually deifying him that were raised near any buildings of social significance throughout China. The attacks on people made during the Cultural Revolution were all done in Mao's name. The Cultural Revolution made individual thoughts a crime. Pople had to hide their thoughts and emotions. People were beaten by teams of Red Guards. Many were denounced, sometimes by their own children or former friends, and sent to brutal labor camps for education. Many do not survive the harsh regime at the camps. Many others were permanently injured from beatings and lack of medical care at the camps. Others suffer from the humiliations also inflicted on them by the Rd Guards and at the camps. Mao had initiated the Cultural Revolution in 1966 when he met thousands of cheering Red Guards (students) at Tian-An-Men Square wearing his military uniform, Mao suit, and armband. Girl students who saw him cut their long queues into two brushes. They put on military uniform, leather belts and Liberation Shoes, virtually the same as the boys were weraing. Military uniform were the most popular and considered suitably revolutionary. They were admired by everyone.

Raprochment and Free Market Reforms

With the death of Mao, China began to rethink the relationship with America and the ecomnomic sysyem.. This raprochment was pursued by the Nixon Administration (1970s). Only with the introduction of free market reforms by Deng Xiaoping did the Chinese economy begin to grow and begin to bring prosperity to China. Gradually the Cultural Revolution played itself out. With the end of the Cultural Revolution fashions again changed in China. China on a radical change in policy through its door open to the outside world in 1978. The open-door policy and freer political environment led to a radically different view of fashion. Army caps and other uniform items were sttill very popular among boys during the period immediately after the Cultural Revolution. The Chinese people gradually regained the freedom of deciding how they wanted to dress on an individual basis. Gradually uniforms vecame less and less popular as young peeople invreasingly wanted to dress more individualistically. Important leaders by the 1980s began to appaer in smartly tailored western suits. Soon after these suiys were being worn by people of all classes from leaders to common laborers. The western suit became was considered a standard dress for China. The popular concept regarding clothes underwent drastic change. Women began wearing high-heeled shoes and qipao once again. Elegant dresses appaered. The Goverment issued oe enforced no limitation of regulations on clothing anymore. [Chang] Most young Chinese turned to the West, primarily America for fashion inspiration. This proved to be realtively wasy as Chinese factories were making large quantities of trendy fashions to be sold in the West. In addition Western publications became easier to obtain and Westernm primarily American, movies began to be shown. The central feature of the reforms was the creation of a Western market economy in China. Increasingly young Chinese are pursuing their on individual like styles and dressing like their counterparts in the West.

China's Future

After the Cold War, the central question concerning China was if a free market capitalist economy will eventually led to the growth of a democratic government. This has occurred to varying degrees in the West as well as countries like the Asian Tigers which adopted capitalist economies. And there was hope that the same process would play out in China. It has not. What has transpired is vey different. In some ways China is more open than during the Maoist era. There is now an imprtant degree of economic freedom in China. People can make decisions affecting their economic life. They can acquire wealth and millions of people have entered the prosperous midlle class. This is the case as long as they do not try to engage in politics and questiion the authority of the Communist Party mandrins. There has been no movement toward democracy. In fact China is moving toward the creation of the most totalitarian political system if any major in history, going far beyond Stalin, Hitler, and Mao. The only country with a more totalitarian system in Kim's North Korea. There is an element of terror that is lacking--noting like Stalin's Great Terror. Where Stalin went after while groups that mnight incklude political opponents. Modern technology has enavled Chinese security agencies to be much more selective. And tragically the American tech giants appear to be more than willing to assist them in this process. Chinese citizens get computer generated citizenships scores which significantly affects their lives. And while Chinese prison camps are not of the same dimenions or leathality as the Soviet Gulag, the Chinese Coimunist mandrins can react can recact with massive brute force when it feels threatened such as with Falun Gong or the Muslim Uyghurs.

Created: 11:09 AM 3/25/2014
Last updated: 11:09 AM 3/25/2014