The Cold War: Country Trends--Taiwan


Figure 1.--The Taiwan-Anerican Mutual Security Pact (1955) meant a formal American commitment to defend Taiwan. This meant the stationing of American military personnel on Taiwan, primarily Navy and Air Force personnedl. The land defense was porimarily in the hands of the Nationalist Army. Dependants were allowed on Taiwan. Here are two dependants touring Taiwan. The children are standing on top of a bomb shelter. Ithink it was builky by the Natiionalists and not the Japanese. The incription on the back read "Meggy & Peter atop Bomb Shelter Kaohsiung Sept 1956" Notice the cartoon-like graphic images on the side of the shelter, instructions on using the shelter. The Japanese began to develop Kaohsiung as an important port and it has replaced Keelung as Taiwan's principal port.

Japan seized Taiwan which they called Formosa in the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). Formosa was a backwater in the Pacific War. The United States did not invade Formosa, but there was damage as a result of air strikes. After the Japanese surrender (August 1945), Taiwan was turned over to the Nationalist Chinese. The victory of Mao Tse-tung and the Communists in the Chinese Civil War caused Taiwan to become a frontline country in the developing Cold War (1949). Chiang Kai-shek and the surviving Nationalist units withdrew to Taiwan where the Communists without a Navy could not follow. The Communists demanded that Taiwan be turned over to them and it became a focus of their foreign policy. This and the Korean War resulted in Communist China become a vitrolic foe of the United States in the Cold War. American provided economic and military support to Chiang and the Nationslists. The American 6th Fleet made it impossible for the Communisdts to cross the Taiwan Straits and invade Taiwan. Chaing and the Nationalistrs maintained the hope of one day returnuing to China. Ironically both the Communists and Nationalists maintained the One China Principle. Much of the Taiwan population was not Han Chinese, a factor in the modern Taiwan independence movement. The Natiionalists also held the off-shore islands of Quemoy (Jinmen) and Matsu which the Communists intermitently shelled. This became an issue in the American 1960 presidential election. While the military confrontation between the Communists and Nationalists made the headlinrs, a more quite development quietkly changed Taiwan. While Communist rule and edconomic brought economic failure and one of the worsrt famines in Chinese history, the free market capitalist economics of the Nationalists and association with the United States created an economic powerhouse in Taiwan. The economy geww developing modern new industries. Taiwan became one of the Pacific Tigers while Communist China languished in poverty and economic failure.

First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95)

Japan began using it rising military power to build an overseas empire. The Japanese shocked the Chinese when they emerged victorious in the First Sino-Japanese War. Tension between China and Japan over interests in Korea broke out in war (1894). The War highlighted the decline of the Qing dynasty. It also highlighted the weakness of the Chinese military and the success of the modetnization process in Japan. The Yi dynasty in Korea attempted continue its traditional seclusion. Korea had a tributary relationship with China which in exchange had provided military protection. China allowed Japan to recognize Korea as an independent state (1875). Subsequently the situation in Korea became complicated. China attempted to maintain its influemce while Japan attempted to expand its influenmce. The Koreans divided between conservative traditionlists and reformists, many of who supported the Japanese. After the assasination of a reformer, a Korean religious sect, the Tonghak, launched a rebellion. The traditionalist Korean Government asked for Chinese military support. A Japanese military epedition reached Seoul (June 8, 1894), obstensibly to support the reformers. China declared war (August 1) after both land and naval engagements had occurred. The War was a disaster for China. The Japanese Armny mauled the Chinese in battles around Seoul and Pyóngyang. The Chinese retreated north and suffered another defeat at Liaoning. The Japanese then took Port Arthur (Luda) (November 21). The Chinese fared even worse at sea. China's northern fleet was devestated by the Japanese Navy in a battle at the mouth of the Yalu River. The Yalu forms part of the border between China and Korea. The Japanese sank 8 of 12 Chinese ships engaged. The surviving 4 ships withdrew behind the fortifications of the naval base at Weihaiwei. There they were destroyed when the Japanese attacked by land across the Liaodong Peninsula. Japan took Weihaiwei (February 2, 1895). After the harsh Winter weather passed, The Japanese drove into Manchuria. The Chinese finally sued for peace. The Treaty of Shimonoseki ended the War (April 1895). Korea was recognized as a sovereign state, but effectively became a Japanese protectorate. China ceded Formosa (Taiwan), the Liaodong Peninsula, and the Pescadores Islands to Japan. The Japanese set out on a comprehensive program of imposing the Japanese language and culture. China was required to pay an indemnity of 200 million taels. Even more humiliating for China, they were forced to open four more treaty ports to external trade. The outcome of the War, however, was modifIed by the Triple Intervention (Russia, France, and Germany). They forced Japan to return the Liaodong Peninsula, but China was required to pay an additional 30 million taels to mollify the Japanese. China's defeat outraged Chinese students and strengthened the reform movement in China. Sun Yat-sen founded the revolutionary republican movement which evolved into the Kuomintang.

Japanese Colonial Rule (1895-1945)

The Japanese set out on a comprehensive program of imposing the Japanese language and culture. Japan acquired Taiwan (Formosa) in the First Sino-Japanese War (1895). It was their first colonial acquisition. Japan began an active program of assimilation to make the islanders to see themselves as Japanese a few years before World War II. The 50 years of Japanese rule left a lasting imprint on Taiwan. The island had infrastructure, industry, and an educational system superior to that on the mainland.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45)

The Japanese invaded China proper, launching the Second Sino-Japanese War. (July 1937). The Japanese Kwantung Army turned a small incident into a full-scale war. Chinese forces were unable to effectively resist the Japanese. The Japanese military was not only better armed and organized, they were also incredibly brutal. The rape of Nanking was ome of the most terrible attrocities of World War II. The Japanese methodically moved south, seizing control of most of eastern China and all of the major ports by the time war broke out in Europe. (1939). The Kuomintang Army was battered, but the Japanese were unable to destroy it. Chiang used the samed tactics that Mao and the Communists had used, withdraw into the rugged, easily defensible interior. The Japanese moved up rivers and railroad lines into the interior of China. Much of the Japanese Army was committed to the war in China. It did not prove as draining for Japan, however, as the Soviet campaign did for Germany. This was in pat because of the ineffectiveness of the Kuomintang Army. Resistance to the Japanese fell primarily on the Kuomintang because the Communists were in the remote areas of northwestern China. Also neither Chiang or Mao wanted to weaken their forced by fighting pitched battles with the Japanese.

Pacific War (1941-45)

Formosa was a backwater in the Pacific War. The United States did not invade Formosa, but there was damage as a result of air strikes. After the Japanese surrender (August 1945). The island would play an imporant, although not central role in the ensuibng Pacific war. Large numbers of islanders were conscripted into the Japanese Army and Navy. Taiwan provided major operational bases for the Imperial Navy. The South Strike Group was headquared at the Taihoku Imperial University in Taiwan. The U.S. Navy wanted to bypass the Philippines and inade Taiwan. General MacArthur argued persuasively to invade the Philippines. The United States did target military bases and industrial centers on the island in bombing raids. Carrier attacks effectively reduced Japanese air power. The United States after liberating the Phillipines decided to bypass Taiwan and invade Okinawa which could provide air bases to cover an invasion of the Japanese Home Islands. The Japanese just before surendering attempted to add Taiwan representatives to the Diet (Parliament) so Taiwan could be claimed as an integral part of Japan rather than a colonial possession. Japan surrendered to the Allies (August 1945). The Allies at the Cairo Conference had already decided, "... all the territories Japan has stolen from China, including Manchuria, Taiwan and the Pescadores, shall be restored to the Republic of China." The Japanese accepted this when Japan signed the Instrument of Surrender.

Returning Taiwan to China (August-October 1945)

Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek attended the World War II Cairo Conference (November 1943). The United States, Britain, and China in their various declarations committed to requiring Japan to return "all territories Japan had stolen from China, such as Manchuria, Formosa {Taiwan], and the Pescadores". The Nationalist Government in Chunking / Chongqing set up the Taiwan Research Committee with Chen Yi, a prominant KMT official, as chairman (April 1944). The committee prepared a report on the economy, politics, society, and military affairs of Taiwan. Emperor Hirohito announced the Japanese surrender (August 14, 1945). General McArthur's General Order No. 1 directed Japanese commanders on Taiwan and other occupied Chinese areas should surrender to Nationalist commanders (August 15). The United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) assigned Taiwan to Chinese control. Chiang appointed Chen Yi to be the first Chinese Chief Executive of Taiwan Province in 50 years (August 29). He also appointed Chen Yi to command the Chinese garrison (September 1). A small advance party of Chinese troops arrived in Taipei (October 5). Additional troops and officalls arrived from Shanghai and Chungking (October 5-24). Chen-Yi arrived on Taiwan (October 24). The last Japanese Governor-General, Andō Rikichi, surrendered the following day (October 25). Chen proclaimed this "Retrocession Day". Japan did not, however, formally renounce it claims until 7 years later (April 1952) when the San Francisco Peace Treaty came into force. As a result of this confusion and Taiwan attitudes toward China, the term 'Recession Day' is no longer commonly used in Taiwan today. Most of the approximately 0.3 million Japanese settlers were repatriated to Japan.

Communist Victory in the Chinese Civil War (1945-49)

The United States had provided considerable military support to Nationalist China during World War II. Getting aid to the Communists in northwest China was a virtual ikmpossibility. The United States somewhat naively attempted after World war II to negotiate a peaceful resolution of the conflict between the Nationalists and Communists. After the collapse of the Nationalists on the Mainland (1949). The victory of Mao Tse-tung and the Communists in the Chinese Civil War caused Taiwan to become a frontline country in the developing Cold War (1949).

Nationalist Refuge (1949)

Chiang Kai-shek and the surviving Nationalist/Kuomintang (KMT) units after a series of disaterous military defeats withdrew to Taiwan. About 1 million Chinese managed to escape from the Communists and cross the Straits to Taiwan (1949). the Communists without a substantial Navy was unavke to pursue Chaing and his followers. The Taiwan Straits separating Taiwan from China is about 180 km (110 miles) wide. This meant that substantial vessels were needed and aur support. President Truman had attempted to negotiate a peaceful settlement of the Civil War. Secretary of State Marshall attempted to make peace, but the differences were ireoncilable. After the Communist victories, President Truman adopted a policy of military non-intervention concerning Taiwan. The Reoublicans sharply criticised him for "losing China". Truman announced that "the United Statees will not involve in the dispute of Taiwan Strait", which meant America would not defend Taiwan if the Chinese communists were to invade across the Straits (January 5, 1950).

Off Shore Islands

Taiwan was the principal Nationalist refuge after the Communist victory on the Mainland. There were also a number of small islands, some very close to the coast that Nationalist tried to hold. The islands in reality had little strategic value, but figured extensively in Cold War politics during the 1950s. In particular it was a way that the Communists could easily hammer the Nationalists with few consequences. Chinese shelling of Quemoy and Matsu in particular reflected twists and turns in difficult to follow Chinese politics. A major issue became whether the United States should include the islands in the Taiwan defense perimter. The Communists wanted them as the first step in invading Taiwan and finally defeating the Nationalists. The Nationalists wanted them as part of their dream of retaking the Mainland. Some like Quemoy and Matsu they did manage to hold on to, repulsing a Communist invasion force. They went on to be a major flash point in the Cold War. Others the Communists sucessfully seized and still others were evacuated by the Nationalists .

Cold War Issue

The Communists demanded that Taiwan be turned over to them and it became a focus of their foreign policy. This and the Korean War resulted in Communist China becoming a vitriolic foe of the United States in the Cold War. It is likely, however, given Communist ideology that this woukld hsave ocurred regardless of American foreign policy. As in the Siviet Union, creating a foreign enemy was an important aspect of Communist ruling techniques. America provided economic and military support to Chiang and the Nationslists. Chaing and the Nationalistrs maintained the hope of one day returnuing to China. The Nationalists also held the off-shore islands of Quemoy (Jinmen) and Matsu which the Communists intermitently shelled. The Soviets provided China with military and economic support.

Korean War (1950-53)

The North Koreans Army crossed the 38th parallel on June 25, 1950 to forcibly unify Korea. The Soviets had provided modernwapons in great quantity to the North Koreans. Embolded by the Communist victory in China during 1948-49, Kim-il-Jong obtained Stalin's approval for the attack. President Truman immediately ordered war material be provided the South Koreans and then air support for the South Korean Army. Seoul fell within days. Truman went to the United Nations which, because the Soviets were boycotting the Security Council, approved a military opperation to repell the North Korean attack. Truman than ordered American military intervention. The Soviets had helped the North Koreans build a powerful military force. The United states after World War II had significantly scled back its conventional military force. As a result, the North Koreans pushed the South Koreans back to a small perimiter around the southern port of Pusan. Generl MacArthir from Japan organized an amphibious invasion at Inchon which caught the North Koreans between two forces. North Korem resistance collapsed and MacArthur rushed north accross th 38th parallel to completely defeat and occupy North Korea. Tuman was skeptical, but MacArthur assured him that Chinese warnings to intervene were bluff. They were not an America norces approaching the Yalu River were mauled by a massive Chinese attack. For a while it looked like the Chiese would tota;lly defeat the U.N. forces, but the front was finally stabilized north of Seoul. What followed was 2 years of stalemate which became a major political issue. Peace talks with the Communists were frustrating. Th major issue became the Communist demand that all POWs be returned, even the ones who did not want to be repatriated. Finally a ceasefire was reached. Stalin died in 1953. Eisenhower became president in 1953 and fulfilling a campaign promise, went to Korea. The armistice went into force (July 27, 1953). More than 3 million Koreans were killed as a result of the War. Millions more were made homeless refugees. About 1 million Chinese soldiers are believe to have been killed. American casualties totaled nearly 55,000.

Truman Administration: American Intervention (1950)

The Korean War dramsatuically changed American policy. The North Koreans crossed the 38th paralell (June 25, 1950). Almost immediately, President Truman changed his policy on Taiwan. President Truman changed his neutral stance and declared the Taiwan Straits neutral waters. He declared the "neutralization of the Straits of Formosa" (June 27). Truman comitted the 7th Fleet into the Straits with orders to prevent any Communist attack on the island. The President's primary goal was to prevebnt any widening of the War. The 7th Fleet was also ordered to prevent the Nationalist forces from attaking the Communists on the Mainland. President Truman did not initially commit the United States to defend Taiwan, but in practical terms, the presence of the 7th Fleet made invasion impossible. Truman's overall policy was to prevent a widening of the Korean War. The 7th Fleet was used to blockade Taiwan. This essentially prevented either the Communists or the Nationalists from commencing hostilities. Thus for the first time, Taiwan was accorded U.S. military security protection. American officials were unsure if the North Korean invasion of South Korea was sponsored by the Chinese, the Soviets or both. Chinese intervention (November 1950) made that moot.

American Occupation of Japan (1945- )

Developments in China and the Korean War had a major impact on American policy toward Japan. The initial American vision was a demilitarized Japan supervised first by America and then by the new United Nations. In furtherence of this, demilitarization was written into the American drafted, post-War Japanese constitution. "Aspiring sincerely to an international peace based on order, the Japanese people forever renounce war as a sovereign right of the nation and the threat or use of force as means of settling international disputes. In order to accomplish the aim of the preceding paragraph, land, sea and air forces, as well as other war potential, will never be maintained. The right of belligerency of the state will not be recognized." [Article 9] The United States was determined to ensure that there would not be anotgher war as occured in Europe after World War I. This vision, however, proved to be short lived as the secturity situation in the Far East changed dramatically. The Soviet Union after the War rapidly shifted from ally to Cold War adversary. Then Chiang Kai-shek, America's World War II ally, was defeated by the Communists and fled to Taiwan (1949). Then Communist North Korea invaded South Korea, launching the Korean War (1950). As a result, the United States shifted from a policy of imposing de-militarization on a war like nation to seeing Japan as a democrartic ally. And when Secretary of State John Foster Dulles entered the negotiations on the peace treaty with Japan to end the occupation, he sought to convince the Jaopanese to rearm and to conclude a military alliance with the United States. Ironiclly the Japanese were very reluctant to rearm. Tgey finally agreed to a paramilitary National Police Reserve.

Eisenhower Administration: First Taiwan Straits Crisis (1953)

General Dwight Eisenhower won the 1952 American presidential election. He took office (January 1953)after taking office moved aggrssivedly to end the Korean War. The threat of atomic weapons apparently convinced the Chinese Communists to agree to a ceasefire (July 1953). After ending the fighting in Korea, President Eisenhower lifted the U.S. naval blockade of Taiwan imposed bt President Truman to prevent the outbreak hostilities between the Nationalists and Communists. The withdrawl of the 7th Fleet made it possible for for hositities to resume. Chiang took the first steps. He moved troops to the the Nationalist offshore outposts of Quemoy and Matsu. The United States after withdrawing the 7th Fleet from the Straits warned the Communists not to take advantage of the situtation. The American warning actually probanly motivated the Communists to respond. Mao viewed the withdrawl of the 7th Fleet in much the same way as Chaing. He saw it as an opprtunity to defeat the Nationalists once and for all and take Taiwan. Mao ordered Chinese atillery batteries to begin shelling Quemoy and Matsu (September 1954).

Formosa Resolution (1955)

American policy makers were unsure how to respond to the fighting in the Taiwan Straits after President Eisenhower withdrew the 7th Fkeet. Foreign policy officials considered a range of options, including the use of nuclear weapons. The final decesion was an American military commitment to defend Taiwan. Congress passed the Formosa Resolution (January 1955). This was a United States pledge to defend Taiwan in event of a Communist invasion. A commitment to the offshore islands like Quemoy and Matsu was left undefined. There was a large degree of bipartisan agreement on defending Taiwan. There were differeces over Taiwan. There was also unease about giving the President essentially an advanced authorization to go to war. Indirect negotiations with the Communists followed and they agreed to cease shelling Quemoy and Matsu. This ended the First Taiwan Straits Crisis (May 1955).

Taiwan-American Mutual Defense Treaty (1955)

The United States in addition to the Formosa Resolution also negotiated a formal mutual security pact with Taiwan. The text of the treaty stresses the defensive nature of the agreement. The preable begins. "The Parties to this Treaty, Reaffirming their faith in the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations and their desire to live in peace with all peoples and all Governments, and desiring to strengthen the fabric of peace in the West Pacific Area," The Treaty was signed (Devember 1954). Senator William F. Knowland (Republican, California) played an important role in obtaining Senate confirmation (February 1955). The Treaty was a formal American commitment to defend Taiwan. The Treaty did not apply to the islands along the Chinese mainland. The Treaty authorized American military assistance to Taiwan. Substantial quantities of military equipment was provided Taiwan in addition to American combat forces. It was not only the 7th Fleet protecting Taiwan. Important Air Force Bases were also opened on the island The most important was Cha Shan Air Base, Hualien. American dependents accompanied Navy and Air Force personnel to Taiwan. The American commitment essentially made Mao's dream of completing his defeat of the Nationalists impossible. The Chinese in Korea had used massive bodies of troops to counter American fire power. It worked, albeit at enormous cost. Crossing the Taiwan Straits against American naval and air power was impossible.

Second Taiwan Straits Crisis (1958-60)

Mao as a result of the American military commitment to Taiwan, began for a while to rethink his strategy of military invasion, he bgan talking about a peaceful settlement (1955-56). Chiang was, however, adament about garisioning Quemoy and Matsu. Mao began to rethink his Taiwan policy again (1958). A range of factors probably affected his decesion. Here Sinologisdts can only speculate. The Great Leap Forward was probably a major factor. This effort to monilize the Chinese masses to rapidly transform the Chinese economy and industry was a huge effort. Seizing Taiwan by military force would have help to achieve popular support. But as the effort began to go bad, Taiwan became even more important. Using foreign advedntures to divert people from domestic failure is a time-honored tradition of dictatiors. And success on Taiwan would be a major achievement for his regime. The increasing American opresence in Taiwan and the lack of any progress as a result of his moderate approach. He decided to adopt more confrontational policies. Mao claimed he wanted "to teach the Americans a lesson" for interfearing in Chinese affairs. The developing Chinese-Soviet rift was probably another factor. Mao's saw the use of force as a matter of status and a way of demonstrating his independenve from the Soviets. After Stalin;s death he saw himseldf as the senior Communisdt leader. Mao ordered the shelling of the offshore islands to be resumed (August 1958). Communist Chinese peropaganda painted the Americans as imperialist aggressors. The United States responded forcefully. President Eisenhower restated America's commitment to defend Taiwan and added a commitment to the offshore islands which were not specifically mentioned in the Formosa Resolution. He enforced his verbal commitment by sending a substantial naval contingent to the Taiwan Straits. Mao decided to end the shelling and pursue a peaceful settlement (October 1958). While Mao turned the Taiwan Straits crisis on and off, he carefully limited hostilities to shelling Nationalist positions on the offshore islands. There were no attacks on American ships or planes. The Chinese made wide use of the shelling in both domestic and foreign propsganda. Quemoy and Matsu although of minimal importance was given enormous attention in the American media and even figured in the Kennedy-Nixon presidential debates (1960). After that they faded from Cold War discussions.

Taiwanese

Ironically both the Communists and Nationalists maintained the One China Principle. Much of the Taiwan population was not Han Chinese, a factor in the modern Taiwan independence movement. While the military confrontation between the Communists and Nationalists made the headlines, a more quite development quietkly changed Taiwan.

Economic Powerhouse

While Communist rule and economic brought economic failure and one of the worsrt famines in Chinese history, the free market capitalist economics of the Nationalists and association with the United States created an economic powerhouse in Taiwan. the Japanese infrastructure and focus on education were also factors, but the primary factor was market reforms which eventully led to political reforms. Taiwan is today a prosperous, democratic country. The economy grew developing modern new industries. Taiwan became one of the Pacific Tigers while Communist China languished in poverty and economic failure. After the influence of Mao wained in the aftermath of the Cultural Revolution, Chinese leaders began to ask basic questions, such as, "If Communism is a surperior economic system, "Why are the capital Asian Tigers so prosperous while we are so poor." Deng Xiaoping visited Singapore (1978). Conversations with Lee Kuan Yew were the genesis for China's rise begun by market reforms. But Taiwan and the other Asian Tigers rimming China could not have ben far from Deng's mind.

Sources

Accinelli, Robert. Crisis and Commitment: United States Policy toward Taiwan, 1950-1955 (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1996).

Chen, Jian. Mao's China and the Cold War (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2001).










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Created: 10:44 PM 7/12/2010
Last updated: 10:14 AM 3/8/2016