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Britain was not one of the two superpowers during the Cold War. Nonetheless, it was one of the important players. Britain at the onset of World War II was one of the world's great powers. The NAZI victories over the British and French radically changed the world power balance. The British almost sucumbed to the German Western Offensive (May 1940). The D-Day invasion (June 1944) was the last time Britain participated in world events on an equal footing with the United States. With the defeat of the Germans and Japanese, it was clear that it would be the two super-powers, the United States and the Soviet Union with their massive industrial and scientific capabilities that would determine the future direction of Europe and other countries. Britain's role in the Cold War should not be underestimated. It was former Prime Minister Winston Chutchill that had warned Britain about Hitler abd the NAZIs also sound the warning about Stalin and the Soviets. first articulated the developing struggle in a speech delivered at President Truman's invitaion at Fulton College in Independence, Missouri. Churchill's electoral defeat after VE Day meant that Britain's initial Cold war policy would be led by the Labour Party--a Socialist party. While it was American power that shielded Western Europe from Soviet domination, the British contribution was important if not vital. From the beginning the cornerstone of NATO was Anglo-Military military cooperation. Here Primeminister Bevin played a critical role in the creation of NATO. One author maintains East-West tension, was often conditioned, and in its early stages accelerated, by Britain's continuing world-wide interests and influence. [Greenwood] Britain because of its Empire played an important role in decolininization which became part of the spread of the Cold War to the Third World. One unfortunate part of this process ws part of the Btitish legacy in countries like India was the disastrous socialist economic policies. Britain had built its economy on free market capitalism, but newly indepenent leadrs like Nehru too to heart the socilist poliies tht the Labour Party was implementing in Britain after the War. The leading political figures in post-War Britain's postwar history (Churchill, Bevin, Eden, Macmillan and Thatcher) played important roles in the Cold War. And just as Churchill plated a role in the opening phase of the Cold War, Primeminister Thtcher played a key role in the closing phase. The "... sudden and quite unexpected collapse of Communism in the autumn of 1989 was a triumphant vindication of all that Mrs. Thatcher had stood for and striven to bring about since 1975. Whether you call it Thatcherism or some other name , the fall of the Berlin Wall, the liberation of the Soviet Empire and the desintegration within two years of the Soviet Union itself represented the ultimate victory for her philosophy and her -- and Ronald Reagan's -- military strategy. The overiding context of all her politics for forty years had been the Cold War; and now suddenly the West had won it." [Campbell]
Britain was not one of the two superpowers during the Cold War. Nonetheless, it was one of the important players. Britain at the onset of World War II was one of the world's great powers. The NAZI victories over the British and French radically changed the world power balance. The British almost sucumbed to the German Western Offensive (May 1940). There would, however, be no British Vichy. Britain after the fall of FRance could do little more than survive, but that was critical. Without Britain, it is difficult to see how the Americans could have taken on th Germans. The D-Day invasion (June 1944) was the last time Britain participated in world events on an equal footing with the United States. While it was the Soviet Red Army that was primarily responsible for smashing the Whermcht, the Western Allies (America and Britain) played a major role in making the Red Army victory possible. And the Western Allies prevented the liberated countries of Western Europe from being absorbed into the Soviet Empire. Britain played a major role in defeating the Germas and Italians, but in doing so the county was bankrupt.
A major event after VE Day was the British General Election (July 5). There was no requirement that Britain hold an election after VE Day. This was a decision that Prime-minister Churchill made. He thought after 10 years, the time for an election had come. After all, the fight agajnst the Axis had been to preserve democracy. His advisers argued against it. They understood that the British people were in a mood for change. They advised Churchill to hold off from an immediate general elction so that the Government would have time to implement moderate conservative reforms. Churchill was intent, however, on an elction to show that the defeat of the Axis was a triumph for democracy. We suspect that dispite the assessment of advisers, he expected that his war time popularity would ensure a Conservtive Party victory. The result was not released for several weeks because of postponed voting in some constituencies and the delays on counting overseas ballots, especially the servicemen overseas (July 26). Britain because of the World War II emergency had gone over 10 years without a General Election. It was the first General Election to be held since 1935. The major parties (Conservatives, Labour, and Liberal) agreed to a coaltion government. Elections were suspended during the War and a National (unity) Government was formed by the major parties. The results shocked many. Prime-minister Churchill was enormously popular as a war leader. But the British people wanted change--meaning a peace benefit. British workers were convinced that socialism offered a more prosperous future than capitalism. They voted for Labour which promised fundamental social reforms. Labour was a socialist party. "Socialist and proud of it," was a Party slogan. They ran on a platform of significantly changing the British capitalist economy. Labour depicted capitalim as evil and convinced much of the British public who wanted change after a decade of austerity. It was a shatering electoral victory. Labour won nearly twice as many seats (393) as the Conservatives (197). Churchill used the term National Government, but he ran essentially with the support of the Conservatives. The Labour MPs selected their leader Clement Attlee as the new prime-minister. Churchill ran a poor campaign. He charged that Atlee would require a Gestapo-esque body to implement his program. Labour Party pledges included full employment, free universal health care, and a cradle-to-grave welfare state. This was basically a massive resistribution of income. The idea that a healthy capitalist economy was needed to pay for the cost of the new welfare system simply did not occur to men like Atlee who were intent on remaking British society. Labour's campaign slogan was 'Let us face the future.' This meant transforming Britain from a capitalist to a socialist state. A Labour tract read, ".It is intolerable that in the second half of the twentieth century the power to decide whether men and women have work or be unemployed and whether our children will have decent prospects or flounder in a dead-end, should rest with these small groups of monopolists. All the talk about the utilisation of science and about planning is meaningless unless the big concentrations of industry and financial power become the property of the people." Labour's plans included nationlizung major industries (mining, fuel and power, transport, and iron and steel). Labour also ntionalized the Bank of England. Except for the Soviet Union, whose economic failures, were not yet known, there had been no socialist contries. And the promoses of Labour (socialist) politicns were very aluring. King George offered Churchill the Order of the Garter, a dejected Churchill commented, "Why should I accept from my sovereign the Order of the Garter when his subjects have just given me the Order of the Boot?"
With the defeat of the Germans and Japanese, it was clear that it would be the two super-powers, the United States and the Soviet Union with their massive industrial and scientific capabilities that would determine the future direction of Europe and other countries. The role of the former world powers (Britain, France germany, and Japan) were yet to be determined, both their economic future and political orientation. It may seem that Britain's oriebtatiion was obvious. After two world wars, the relationship with America to resist, this time the Soviets, would seem to be obviius. But it was the scocalist Labour Party that decisively won the General Election, and many in the Labour Party, especially the partlimentary party, had admiring view of the Soviet Unuin, people like Michaek Foot who would bve an inmpotant voice in the Party into the 1980s. He was Labour Leader (1980-83).
Britain's role in the Cold War should not be underestimated. While it was American power that shielded Western Europe from Soviet domination, the British contribution was important if not vital. From the beginning the cornerstone of NATO was Anglo-Military military cooperation. Here Labour Leader Ernest Bevin played a critical role. While never prime-minister Bevin played a key role in keeping the Labour movement out of Communist hands. Bevin co-founded and served as general secretary of the important Transport and General Workers' Union (1922-40). He then served as Minister of Labour in the war-time coalition government. He brilliany maximized British labour supply for both the services and domestic industry, bringing in teenagers and women to replce the men conscripted for the services. He helped overt most keep strikes and other disruptions. His was appointed Foreign Secretary in the post-war Labour Government (1945-51). He managed to ensure continued American financial support, withdrew from India and most of the Middle East. Unlike some Labour leaders, especially in the later years, he remined a strident opponent of Communism znd Soviet expansioni. He was a strong American Cold War ally and played a key role in founding NATO. One author maintains East-West tension, was often conditioned, and in its early stages accelerated, by Britain's continuing world-wide interests and influence. [Greenwood] The leading political figures in post-War Britain's postwar history (Atlee, Churchill, Bevin, Eden, Macmillan, and Thatcher) played important roles in the Cold War.
Lead Lease was primarily designed by President Roosevelt to assist Britain in its fight with NAZI Germany. Lend Lease was created in 1941 because Britain had essentially gone bankrupt fighting the NAZIs (December 1940). At the time, Britain and the Dominions were the only countries still fighting the NAZIs. The Act was specifically designd to aid Britain. Germany was financing the War by brutally exploiting the occupied countries, including the the seizure of food and the use of slave labor. America in 1941 was just beginning to convert the economy to war production. Thus there was only limited actual arms that could be delivered to Britain in 1941. The initial Lend Lease shipments, were food and industrial commodities. They were badly needed. The shipments arrived at a time when the German U-boat blockade was close to starving out the British. Britain as the primary recipient of Lend Lease was significantly affected. It was Lend Lease that had made Britain's huge war effot to continue after Bitain was more than technically bankupt. The Gerrman startegy was to pillage the economy of occupied countries and reduce the populationms to near skave staus, feprnfing on the racial make up of the country.
The United States after the Japanese surrender in Tokyo Bay (September 2, 1945), the United States finally ended Lend Lease. Congress decided that Lend Lease wuld not be a post-war loan program (April 1945). The United states began ending Lend-Lease after V-E Day. This was a lirrle complicated because ships were still in transit Whn Germant Syrrendered. A there werw largw quantities of material that had been landed , but not shipped to the troops. Some of this the Brits did not want, other material they did want. President Truman tool the decision to end Lend Lease unilaterally without any consultaiion with the British or other allies. This was unusual. Britain and mtricanm very carefully coordinated their World War II operations, especially after Pearl Harbor when Amrrica was thrust into the shooting War. President Truman has been a United States senator and even after being eleacted vice -president (Novenber 1944) played not part in the actual rinning of the war and working with Britain. Truman was not even told about the atomic bomb until after President Roosevelt died and he became president (April 1945). Ehat Truman had been involved with was a Congressional committe which became known as the Truman Comittee that soght to root out waste, inefficiency, and war profiteering in American war industries, saving an estimated $10-15 billion as Ameriocanm lives as well. [Daniels, p. 224.] Thus without being involved in actually fighting the War and the need to support Britain and with involvement focusing on the cost of the war, iy is natural that Truman would act to cut the cost as soon as the war ended. This was, however, not entirely a presiential decesion. Congress decided that Lend Lease wuld not be a post-war loan program (April 1945). Britain was in desperate straits after 6 years of war. The British were strinctly rationed furing the War, but they never wnt hungry. The diet was bland and boring, but the populatiin's nutrional needs were met. Without Lend Lease, the British were in danger of not habing the food taht they needed. The answer was a massive $3.75 billion American loan. Iy is know an as the Keynes Loan, because John masnard Keynes was assigned the tak of negotiating it. This proved a daunting task, because the Americans used it to wrestle massive concensiins, namely: 1) Imperial Preferences, 2) Sterling Area, 3) free trade agreenments, and 2 percent interest. Keynes, would complain, "Why do you trear us like thus?" It tuned him into stridently anti-American.
Gen. George C. Mrshall used a cerenony at Hsrvard University to announce the European Recovery Proram, almost alwats today known as the Marshall Plan (June 5, 1947). Marshall explained, :Our policy is not directed against any country or doctrine, but against hinger, poverty, desperation, and chaos." The imprtance of the anniuncemnt sas not intially understood, but the BBC's Washington's cooresopndent briefed by Dean Acgheson, reported in detail. Foreign Secretary Ernst Bevin picked up on the reports. The United States provided some $13 billion to 18 European countries. The Soviet Union could have participated, byt Stalin rejected the effort and prevented the Easrern European countries occupied by the Red Army from participating. Britain was by far the major recipient, much more than provided Germany. Marshall received the Nobel Peace Prize (1953). The Anti-American left questioned Anmerican altruism, but the results speak for themselves. The Marshall Plan along with the American security unbrella were important factors in the European Economuc Miracles--which stood in sharlp contrast to the slugish economies of the Soviet bloc. Atlee and his Labour Goverment misued the American loans. Unlike Germany which used the Marshall Plan aid to rebuild and modrrnize its industry, Atlee used the Masrshall Plan aid essentially in buildfing the Welfare State -- the utopian society that was being called the New Jerusalem. [Roberts, p. 396.]
Churchill's electoral defeat after VE Day meant that Britain's initial Cold war policy would be led by the Labour Party--a Socialist party. Britain's role in the Cold War was limitd by the huge World War II expenditures essentially bankrupting the country. America spent even more, but the vigouros free market economy after the War generated the wealth and economic growth to quickly pay off the war debts. Prime-Minister Atlee with a huge Labour majority in Parliament had the ability to do what they had dreamed about for years -- fundamentally resjape the fabric of British society. They introduced a vast array of Socialist policies designed to make Britain a more fair society, but in fact impeded economic growth and expansion. Granted, the new Labour Government faced enrmous problems. Hugh Dalton, Chancellor of the Exchequer, faced the same urgent problems that Britian had to comfront after World War I. Fully half of Britain's economy had been mobilized for war. Britain mobilized soldiers and civilians for war. The orimary focus of indstry was on the air war and fleets of Lancaster bombers to carry the war to the Reich. In addition produced vast quantities of other arms, bombs, and munitions. Dalton had to craft a peacetime budget and at the same time minimize inflation. The Labour Party's emphasis was not on building a dynamic private sector economy as in America, but social reform. Much as President Obama decided as president to focus on health care reform rather than creating jobs. Labour launched into social reform like the National Health Serviceas the first step in creating a welfare state. Labour's economic policy was centered on nationalisation of industry. The Labour dominated Parliament nationalized Britain's railways and heavy industries. State planners took over the management of the economy. Taxes were substantially increased to pay for the new welfare system. Britain not only did not grow at the sme rate as America, but it even lagged behind the defeated Axis countries. Britain had the strongest economy in Europe before the war and highest wages. Soon after the War, Britain's economy and wages began to fall behind its continental partners. These countries would also build welfare states, but generally after their conomies revived and not before. Nor was the massive nationalizationof heavy industry on the continent. The weak economy significantly limited Britain's role in the Cold War.
It was former Prime Minister Winston Chutchill that had warned Britain about Hitler and the NAZIs and waged an often lonely campagin against the Appeasers, Baldwin and Chamberlain who dominated Parliamenr during the 1930s. The popular view of Churchill is that he was at his peak when his booming voice was a rare voice of fefiance to the Hitler and the NAZIs as they rolled up one country after another, shockingly France. including Frace hich had te backbone of resistance to the Germans in World War I. But then after 1940, Churchill's influence gradually declined as Hitler invaded the Soviet Union and meica enteed the War. This is not entirelythe case as Churchill's caution prevented America from making catistrophic mistakes. The adfter VE-Day, the British people rejected his poat -War leadeship. He famously told the King who offered him the Order of the Garter, �How can I accept the Order of the Garter, when the people of England have just given me the Order of the Boot?" That was the case, but Churchill out of office made a huge contribution to the free world as a result of two speeches he gave in 1946. One in the U.S. heartland to the American people and another to the Europeans in Zurich. President Truman favored taking a stiffer approach to the Soviets than Presudent Roosevelt. But Roosevelt was a tough act to follow. Not only did Truman not have Roosevelt's gravitas, but there were powerful pokes men n the left ad right wo opposed him. At the time America had brought much of its World War II Army home. The Soviets still had much of their 300 divsions in place. Truman was not at all sure that he could bring America over to his position of resisting Soviet power. As a result he responded fabotably to the idea of Westminister College in Fulton, Missouri to invite Churchill to recieve an honary degree and of course speak. President Truman spent several hours with him on the Train to Missouri. The result was that famous speech, now know as his Iron Curtain speech. �From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent.� (March 1946) Churchill would call it, "The most imprtant speech of my life." A few months later, Churchill gave a second speech at the University of Zurich (September 1946). It is today known as his United states of Europe spech. He began, "I wish to speak to you today about the tragedy of Europe." While less recognized, it was a very important address telling the uropeans that integration based ob a French-German raprochment was vital. As Churchill said, I"n all this urgent work, France and Germany must take the lead together." DeGualle was outraged but evetully adopted the idea. [Watson] These two speeches would set out the core of the western response to the Soviet threat.
There was still a strong hard-right componeny of the Labour Oarty in 1948 that were udeologicalkly tied to the Sviiet Unioin. Two events occurred in 1948 that irrevocably ties even the Labour Party into a Cold War alliance with the United States to resist Soviet aggressioin. Both were engineered by Stalin. The first was the Soviet oecestrated coup in Czechoslovakia. Just as Czechoslovakiawas at center stage in the lead up to World War I. It was at center stage in the outbreak of the Cold War. The Soviets enginered a coup in Czechoslovakia (February 1948). Stalin was not interested in bridge building. He wanted a reliable, compliant Czechoslovakia like the other satellite states of Eastern Europe. The Communists armed their supporters and staged street demonstragtions. They were supported by the police because the Ministry of the Interior was in the hands of the Communists. The second was Stalin's attempt to seize West Berlin by blockading the city. The Western Allies responded with a massive airlift. It was thus clear to all but hard core Communists what Stalin's intentions were.
Britain, France, and the Low Countries created a Western military alliance. These countries, however, by themselves could not have resisted a determined offensive by the Soviet Union. Even combined they did notvhave the capability to confont the massive Red Army. Only Britain because of the Channel had the capability of resisting the Channel. We cannot at this time assess the economic debate. The Marshal Plan was important, but it was only seed money, It was the Europeans who played the key role in generating the ecomnomic miracle that swept Western Europe in sharp contrast to the moribund economies of Soviet dominated Eastern Europe. While the role of the United States in financing recovery can be debated, it is clear that only the military shield of the Unites States prevented the establishment of Eastern European People's Republics in Western Europe. America did not withdraw from Europe after World War II as it had done after World War I and many asumed would occur after the NAZI surrender. American participation in a miltary pact to defend Western Europe was not a foregone conclussion in 1945. It was Soviet actions after the War that created political support in America for a continuing military presence in Western Europe. It was genrally thought that America's rejection of Wilson's League of Nations and isolationist policies after World War I had made possible Hitler's rise to power. Many Americans became convinced that the mistake should not be repeated after World War II. It was Stalin more than any other individuals that helped bring about that commitment. Stalin after seizing control of the Baltics, Poland, omania, nd Bulgaria, moved to seized total control of Czechoslovakia (1948), ending all pretence of democracy. It was not lost on many that Czechoslovakia was Hiler's first victim. But it was the Soviet blockade of West Berlin that made it clear that a strong Western military capability was necessary to counter Soviet power. The United States helped organize the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)--a mutual assistance military treaty. Even befoire the Soviet blockade was lifited, the United States and 11 other countries on April 4, 1949 signed the treaty. [Hudson, p. 62.] Thanks to Stalin, there was little debate in the Senate which approved ratification in an overwealming 82 to 13 vote. Stalin's foreign policy had brought about just what he did not want, a powerful, determined military capability on the the western edge of the Soviet Empire. Despite the the treaty vote, many Americans were uneasy about President Eisenhoer's commitment to Europe. His choice of General Eisenhower as NATO Supreme Commander was adeft political move. Eisenhower as a result of his World War II role was tremendously popular in both America and Europe. And interestngly, despite leading Allied armies into Germany, he was even popular in Germany. While not critical when NATO was established, in the long run, NATO and the defense of Western Europe would depend on German prticipation.
Britain had been the wealthiest country in Europe by all measures. It was was the second wealthiest country in the world only behind the United States. The country's fiances were severly dmaged by World War II, the greatest war in history. There was also extensivec physical damage. And as a result of the War, britain begn losing its colonism beginning with India (1947). Given the scale and cost of the War, it is not surprising economic problems followed. And they did, even in the United States whivh had been mucvh less sffected by the War. But the economic problems in Aerica and the Continent were short lived. America ecperinced a huge economic post war boom (1950s). And Continental Western Europe experienced economuc miracles, including Italy. Britain in contrast lagged. War time rationing in fact was not completly ended for many years (1953). Living stsndards fell below the major comntinental ciuntrues (Germany, Frnce nd the Benlux countrieds. After decdes of economic success, Britain became the poorman of Western Eurppe. We have seen many excuses. Finances were damaged, but so were other Europpean countries and much more everely. And Britain was the largest recipient of both Lend Lease and Marshal Plan Aid. There was physical damahge, but when viewd at what German cities looked like, the physical damage excuse is laughable. One gets the sense that Briutiush leaders were looking for excuses rather than identifying causes. ASndf there was loss of colonies. But other countries lost colonies (Belgium, France, and the Netherlands) Of course the Brtish Empire was the largest, but Belgiun and the Netherlands were much smaller countries, thus the per capita impact was very similar. And these other countries that lost their colonies all flourished after the War without them. European integration is aore plusible gactir, but it shoukld be noted that the Treaties of Rome creating the European Economic Community (EEC) were not signed until more thsn a decade after the War (1957) and did notventer into force until n1958. And by that time the superior performance of the Continental countries was alerady in evidence. Pne has to ask why did Brirain decline while Europe achieved a stunning ecomomic performance. There seem to be two orimary eeasons. First the doctranire socialism of the Labour Party which dominated much of the Post-War era until Mrs. Thatcher (1979). Second was Britin's failure of manageing its post-War position including matters such as exchange rates.
The Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament (CND) was a movement that advocates unilateral nuclear disarmament by the United Kingdom. It also promoted international nuclear disarmament, and tighter international arms regulation through agreements such as the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The idea behind the CND was that British should set the example and the Sovuet Union would follow suit. It was a concept based on faith. As the Cold War evolved, it would only by matching Soviet weapons deoployment that the Soviets finally agreed to arms reduction. One might have thought that after almost presiding over the end of Western Civiization because of the lack of preparadness to confront the NAZIs that the CND would attract few supporters, but that was was not the case. Mant Britains seem to gave thought that the Soviet Uniin was a bebnighn country and no threat. The CND opposed military action that may result in the use of nuclear, chemical or biological weapons. Actually they opposed all war. They were essentially a pacifuist group. They also opposed the building of nuclear power stations in the UK. The CND was founded by an organizing Committee (November 1957). Canon John Collins was the chairman. He does not seem to have been concerned with Soviet suppression of religin througout Eastern Europe. Long-time pacifist Bertrand Russell was the president. He opposed rearmament in the face of the NAZI military threat. He famously wrote, "If the Germans succeed in sending an invading army to England we should do best to treat them as visitors, give them quarters and invite the commander and chief to dine with the prime minister." (1937) [Russell] Peggy Duff was as organising secretary. The Committee organised CND's first public meeting at Methodist Central Hall, Westminster(February 1958). From that beginning step, the CND has been at the forefront of the British peace movement. hy claim to hsve been Europe's largest single-issue peace campaign. A major efforts was the Aldermaston March, which was held over the Easter weekend from the Atomic Weapons Establishment near Aldermaston to Trafalgar Square, London (April 1958). This became an annual event..
As in America, the NKVD/KGB was very active in Britain before and After World War II. Britain's Secret Intelligence Service (SIS/MI-6) played an important role in helping the United States create its first intelligence agency during World War II--the Office of Strategic Servives (OSS). This was the forerunner of the Central Inteligence Service (CIA). The British were concerned throughout the War about American intelligence practices comsidering them too lax. As it worked out, it was British Naval codes that were racked by the Germn Anwehr, a disterous development in the Battle of the Atlntic. And MI-6 was pentrated by Kim Philby and his assoiciated by the NKVD. This only came to light as the Americans began to decphier the Venoan Papers. The Soviets had active operations in Britain. The Labour Government that took office after World War II (1945) was a Socialist, not a Communist Party, but like American Libeals they were concrned about Soviet power than Conservative figures like Churchill. They sought to improive relations with the Soviet Union through a range of measures like encouraging trade. One security failure was allowing members of a Soviet Trade Mission to tour defense factorie making jet engines. One pronlem the Soviets had in building jets was a problem the Germans had not solved--metalurgy. They had not ben able to develop the advanced alloys need to withstand the high tmpertures injet engines. This was the porimry weakness of the German World War II ME-262. And the Soviet jet project after World War II was primary based on captured German technology and scientists. The Soviet trade delegation had special shoe soles designed to pick up metal shavings on the floor of the defense plns they visited. This helped them develop the a;lloys they needed and was an important step in developing the MIG-15s that the U.S, Air Force had to face in the skies over Korea (1950).
Britain because of its Empire played an important role in decolininization which became part of the spread of the Cold War to the Third World. Britain had ammssed the largest colonial empire in history. As was said at the time, "The sun never set on the British Empire." The Empire touched all corners of the globe. Decolonization actually began much earlier. Learing from the unhppy American excperience, the British began granting home rule to the Dominions which by the time of World War I were essentially independent countrries and colonies in name only. After the end of World War II, a rapid worldwide process of decolonization began in which Britain granted independence to all of its imprtant colonies in a largly peaceful process. Unlike France, there were no bitter colonial wars. The first colony to be granted independence was India--the most important of all (1947). The British decision to grant independence to India arose primarily out of necessity. It was clear that the colony was ungovernable without the consent of the Congress Party and Congress was set on independence. Gandhi's successful non-violent social movement also inspired a fundamental change in the perceptions of the Indian peiple. That would lead not only to the end of the Raj, but British rule in other colonies. Only the ppliction of masive militay force could prevent independence, nd thoise days had long since past except in Communist countries like the Soviet Union and China. Tragically independence resuted in massive communal rioting and bloodshed with the Mudslim League demanding a sepsrate state--Pakistan. Next came Palestine which the British left rather than fighting a colonial war (1948). One by one, other colonies were granted indepndence (1950s-70s). The whole process ended for the most part when the Argrntuine Army tries to seize the Falklamd Islands by force (1982). Ironically the tiny, remote Falklands would have a profound impact on Britain--more so than India and all the rest of the Empire. And even more unfortunate part of this process was that part of the Btitish legacy in countries like India was the disasterous socialist economic policies. Britain had built its economy on free market capitalism, but newly indepenent leaders like Nehru too to heart the socilist poliies that the Labour Party was implementing in Britain after the War. Nehru and others saw socialism as a fast track to ecoinomic developmernt. In fct it prioved an imndedoiment to seconomic decelopmenbt in the 50 or so conyties wgere it weas implemented. Only later would the Asian Tigers show that it was capitalism that was tge fast track. Two of the Asian Tigers would be British colonial outposts--Hong Kong and Singapore.
Harold MacMillan began his political career befory World warII as a Tory back bencher who backed Churchill and opposed Prime Minister Chamberlain's appeasement policy. He becme prineminister n the aftermath of the 1956 Suez Crisis which shook Britain's relationship with America (1957). He became known for his pragmatic policies and seeming inflappability. MacMillan served as primeminister during what most see as the most dangerous period of the Cold war (1957-63). After Senator Kennedy's election (1960), he moved to reaffirm the 'special relationship' with America. President Kennedy was receptive fully aware of the historic ties and having spent time in Britain before the World War II while his controversial father served as the American ambassador. It was a mutually beneficial relationship as the twin crises of Berlin and Cuba unfolded. The East German[Sandford] s put up the Berlin Wall (1961)and the Bay of Pigs (1961) and Cuban Missle Crisis (1962) occured during this period. Unity between the two Allies was especially important in resisting Soviet attempts to for the Allies out of West Berlin. It was during this period that President Kennedy delivered his 'Ich bin ein Berliner' speech in the shadow of the infamous Wall. The major disagreement between the two was Skybolt. Britain had decided to base its entire deterrent force on the American-built Skybolt. When the United States cancelled Skybolt because of the velopment of submarine baced ICBS, the result was the Skybolt Crisis (1963). This difference was resolved by America giving the Royal Navy the UGM-27 Polaris missile and construction of the Resolution-class submarines designed to launch them.
Just as Winston Churchill played a role in the opening phase of the Cold War, Prime-Minister sergeant Thatcher who became prime-minister (1979) played a key role in the closing phase. The "... sudden and quite unexpected collapse of Communism in the autumn of 1989 was a triumphant vindication of all that Mrs. Thatcher had stood for and striven to bring about since 1975. Whether you call it Thatcherism or some other name, the fall of the Berlin Wall, the liberation of the Soviet Empire. and the disintegration within 2 years of the Soviet Union itself represented the ultimate victory for her philosophy and her -- and Ronald Reagan's -- military strategy. The overriding context of all her politics for 40 years had been the Cold War; and now suddenly the West had won it." [Campbell] It should not be thought that Thatcher and Reagan were the key players. The key player was Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev. He naively believed that Communism could be reformed and was a basically decent person, unwilling to use terror and brute force to hold the Soviet empire together. The role of Thatcher and Reagan while not key should not be minimized. Both their military and economic policies put pressure on the Soviet system. Strong defense policies forced the Soviets to levels of military spending they could not afford. This put the Cold War competition on an economic plane--the Soviet Achilles Heel. Capitalism is an economic system which generates innovation and creates wealth. Socialism in sharp contrast inhibits innovation and destroys wealth. This is why of the 50 or so Socialist countries--all have failed to create prosperous societies and often leaving famine and mass graves in their wake. The only successful Communist country is China and only because they decided to permit a Capitalist sector. Both Thatcher and Reagan helped generate strong domestic economies at a time that socialism brought stagnation and economic policies in the Soviet Union. It it was the workers who tore down Communism, first in Poland, then in the other satellite states and finally in the Soviet Union itself. Too often the emphasis is on defense policy and the Cold War. In fact Thatcherism fundamentally changed British society, changes that in addition to making Britain a more prosperous country, helped seal the fate of the Soviet Empire.
Campbell, John. The Iron Lady: Margaret Thatcher, from Grocer's Daughter to Prime Minister (2012), 576p.
Daniels, Jonathan. The Man of Independence> (University of Missouri Press: 1998).
Greenwood, Sean. Britain and the Cold War, 1945-91.
Hudson, G.F. The Hard and Bitter Peace: World Politics Since 1945 (Praeger: New York, 1967), 319p.
Roberts, Andrew. A History of the English Speaking People Since 1900 (Harper Collins: New York, 2007), 736p.
Russel, Bertrand. "Museum Of Tolerance Acquires Bertrand Russell�s Nazi Appeasement Letter" CBS Los Angeles (February 14, 2014). Russell eventually changed his mind on Hitler, but if Britain's had heeded his advise, Britain would have become part of NAZI occupied Europe. And we know what that would have meant NAZI occupation plans..
Sandford, Christopher. Harold and Jack: The Remarkable Frienship of Primeminister MacMillan and President Kennedy (2014), 336p.
Watson, Alan. Churchill's Legacy: Two Speeches to Save the World (2016).
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