The Cold War: Hungary

Figure 1.--The Hungarian Revolution ocurred at a very dangerous period of the Cold War. Stalin was dead, but Soviet officials neither questioned or doubted the superiority of Marxist-Lenninism and the strugglw with the Capitalist West. The Hungarian people encouraged by the 20th Party Congress, wanted out of the Soviet Empire. The Soviets were determined, however, to maintain their Eastern European Empire by force. And important Soviet officials began to see the dangers inherent in the liberal reforms coming from the 20th Party Congress. Here a London girl gives a doll to a young Hungarian refugee. The press caption read, "Refugees from Hungary recall the nightmare of the Russian invasion: Red troops asked, 'Is this Egypt? An eight year old London girl, Penelope Norris yesterday parted with her most treasured toy--a doll. She gave it to a Hungarian refugee chikd. Penelope, knew that the doll would comfort her new friend. The little Hunagrain glrl smiled. For her it was a happy incident in a bewildering day. Not so for the adult refugees around her. They arrived in Britain on saturday and talked freely of their nightmare experiences. But behind their smiles there were tears and always the hesitant request: 'Please, please don't mention our names. We still have relations back home.' Their stories ranged from horrifying to fantastic. Three young men barely out of their teens described the entry of the Russian troops. 'Some of them were looking for the Suez Canal,' said one. 'They seriusly thought theybhad been sent to Egypt.' 'Others had been told that they were going to fight German and American paratroopers. None of the Russians knew that were Hungarians." The photograph was dated November 19, 1956.

Control of Hungary after World War II became a contest between two competng versions of Communism. Imre Nagy spent years as a refugee in the Soviet Union. As Minister of Agriculture after the War he introduced a popular land reform program. Hungary had been dominted by large landed estates. Nagy was elected Speaker of the Hungarian Parliament (1947). He gradualy emerged as a leading spokesman for those with a liberal vision of Communism. Prime Minister Mátyás Rákosi dominated Hungary and imposed an increasingly authoritarian regime. Rákosi was one of the brutal dictators that Stalin had imposed on the people of Eastern Europe. Rákosi faithfully carried out orders from Moscow. He conducted a dreadgul purge in Hungary beginning in 1950 and lasting until Stalin died in 1953. In a country of only about 10 million, 1.3 million were targetted , about half of which were arrested. Here I have seen varying estimates. There were 2,350 were exeuted. [Sebestyen] Rákosi was Jewish, even so he joined in Stalin's anti-Semetic campaign. Rákosi brutal rule was questioned from withn the Party and Rákosi purged the Party membership, expelling 200,000 for disloyalty or lack of sufficent loyalty. The death of Stalin and then Khruschev's De-Stalinization profram brought calls for reform in Hungary. A peaceful student protect was fired on by the security police, sparking the Hungarian Revolution.

World War II

German diplomacy during the 1930s sought to bring former World War I ally Hungary within the NAZI orbit. The NAZIs used financial enducements as well as the growing strength of Fascist elements in the country. Hungary also had territorial claims on neighboring countries which it hoped to avhieve through cooperation with the NAZIs. Hungary which had fought with Germany (as Austro-Hungary) in World War I, joined the Axis (November 20, 1940). Hitler rewarded the Hungarians with a substantial slice of Romania at the Vienna conference (November ? 1940). The Hungarians cooperated in the NAZI invasion of Yugoslavia (April 1941). Admiral ordered Hungarian military units to occupy territory claimed by Hungary in Yugoslavia. These areas had ethnic Hungarian populations. Hungary subsequently annexed a part of Vojvodina. German successes in the early phases of World War II convinced many in Europe that the NAZIs would prevail in the War. This strengthened the position of right-wing Fascist elements in the country. Admiral Horthy named right-wing politician Laszlo Bardossy to succeed Teleki as primeminister. Bardossy as a NAZI ally led Hungary into World War II. Hungary played a modest role in Basrbarossa (1941), but after the Soviet Winter ofensive (December 1941), the NAZI compelled Hungary to mobilize additional forces in the German Summer offensice (1942). The Soviets devestated the Hungarian Second Army as part of its Stalingrad offensive. Hungary subsequently withdrew its army rom the Eastern Front (April 1943). Hitler fearing that Hungary was preparing to sign a separate peace occupied the country (March 1944). When the Red Army arrived (September 1944), Hungary became an intense battlefield. Hitler rushed in reserves, but in doing so depleted the forces needed to defend Berlin.

Peace Settlement

Hungary signed the Peace Treaty of Paris. This stripped Hungary of all the territories that it gained as a NAZI ally from Czechoslovakia. Romania, and Yugoslavia (1938-41). In addition, the Soviet Union annexed Subcarpathia. This former area of Hungary is now part of Ukraine.

Population Exchanges

Major population changes occurred during and after the War. The Gerrmans with varying degrees of Hungarian support destroyedmuch of tge country's Jewish population. The Hungarian Government expelled about two thirds of the ethnic German minority (202,000 people) was expelled (1946-48). Hungary and Czechoslovakis negotiated a forced exchange of population.

Post-War Hungary

Hungary under effective Soviet control formed a provisional government while fighting wa still raging in Budapest (December 22, 1944). It was based on a Provisional National Assembly which was composed of large numbers of Communist and the other "antifascist" parties. A cabinet was formed of both regozizable figuees from the old regime and many new figures. The first major action of this government was to conclude an armistice with the Soviet Union (January 20, 1945). Fightingvwas still going on, in part because much of it was being carried on by German units. Under the terms pf the armistice, an Allied Control Commission (ACC) was established with Soviet, American, and British representatives. Hungary was treated legally as a defeated Axis nation. The ACC theoretically held sovereignty over occupied Hungary. In reality the Soviets controlled the situatioin as there were no Allied military forces in Hungary. The ACC chairman, Marshal Kliment Voroshilov, was very close to Stalin. Thus he in effect had virtually absolute control of the country. Hungary was affected by the War in a range of ways. Large numbers of Hungarians were killed or captured in the Soviet Union. As the War went against Germany, more of Hungary's economic output was devoted to the war effort, causing shortages and inflation. The German scorced earth retreat ad Soviet offensive devestated thgeccountry. Budapest was in ruins. There was little support for Communism in Hungary, Bela Kun's short-lived Hungarian Soviet Republic (1919) had turned most Hungarians against Communism. The following white terror had eliminated many Hungarian Communists. There were two small Hungarian Communist groups during World War II. Laszlo Rajk was a student communist leader who fought with the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War (1936-39). Durungthe War he organized a communist cell which operated underground in the country. Matyas Rakosi led a Moscow-based Hungarian group. Rakosi returned to Hungary in the wake of the Red Army. His group became known as the "Muscovites". Rajk's organization also surfaced. Rakosi's close ties with the Soviets greatly strngthened his his influence within the Party. A rivalry developed between the two factions. As the Red Army moved steadily west through Hungary, Party membership swelled. Hungary formally abolished the Kingdom of Hungary and created the Second Republic (February 1, 1946). Post-war Hungary was eventually taken over by a Soviet-allied government and it became part of the Eastern Bloc. The People's Republic of Hungary was declared (1949). The Communists divided the large estates among the peasantry and nationalised industry and other means of production, following the Stalinist line of heavy industry and collectivised agriculture. Secret police terror, forced displays of loyalty and worsening living standards generated deepening resentment among the Hungarian people.

Communist Hungary (1949-53)

Stalin after World War II did not immeitely install communist Governments. Rather he include some mkoderate leftist parties in the first governments. We are not entirely sure what was runing theough his mind. Perhaps he ssumed thst Communist parties would be elected. This did not occur, so the Communists baked by the Red Army and NKVD gradylly seized control by a variety of means, basically staging coups. The dominant politican in the aftermth of the War was Ferenc Nagy (1903–79), a man of peasant orihgins. He led the Smallholders Party. He was chosen Speaker of the National Assembly (November 1945) and a member of the High National Council (December 1945). As a result of Hungary's first democratic election, he became Prime Minister (February 1946). From the beginning, his makor focus was on resisted the Hungarian Communist Party and its effot to estanlish a Party dictatoeship. He was unwilling to become a puppet fir a Soviet backed Communist police state. He was forced to resign by the Soviet NKVD. Instead of arresting him, the NKVD kidnapped his little boy. The boy was returned after he resigned. The Communist Party thus seized control. The United States granted him and his family assylum. The future of Hungary then became a contest between two competng versions of Communism. Imre Nagy spent years as a refugee in the Soviet Union. As Minister of Agriculture after the War he introduced a popular land reform program. Hungary had been dominted by large landed estates. Nagy was elected Speaker of the Hungarian Parliament (1947). He gradualy emerged as a leading spokesman for those with a liberal vision of Communism. Prime Minister Mátyás Rákosi (1892-71) understood Stalin's penchant for a more authoritarian approach as a way of cementing his control of Hungary. Like I. Nagy, he spent the Wa5r in the Soviet Union. He was anoited by Stalin as leader of Hungary's Communist Party from (1945). He was General Secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party (1945–1948) and holding the same post when for cosmetic reasons the Party was remamned the Hungarian Working People's Party--MDP (1948–1956). He was a hard Stalinist and loyal to Soviet Union to a degree notable even by Eastern European standards. Rákosi dropped all pretense of democracy. He gave the non-Communist parties an ultimatum: cooperate with a new, Communist-dominated coalition government or face arest and go into exile. Rákosi dominated Hungary and imposed an increasingly authoritarian regime. Rákosi was one of the brutal dictators that Stalin had imposed on the people of Eastern Europe. Rákosi faithfully carried out orders from Moscow. He conducted a dreadful purge in Hungary beginning in 1950 and lasting until Stalin died in 1953. In a country of only about 10 million, 1.3 million were targetted , about half of which were arrested. Here I have seen varying estimates. There were 2,350 were executed. [Sebestyen] Rákosi was Jewish, even so he joined in Stalin's anti-Semetic campaign. Rákosi brutal rule was questioned from withn the Party and Rákosi responded by purging Party membership, expelling 200,000 for disloyalty or lack of sufficent loyalty. The Church was also targetted. Priests were arrested. They also arrested the bishop of Esztergom, Cardinal Mindszenty, and organized a show trial (1949). As in the rest of Soviet dominated Eastern Europe, the economic boom, Communists expcted did not occur. They could not, hoever, question socialism, not only were the devoted Markisrs, but qiestioning socilism would not have been tolerted by Stalin. Rákosi tolerated Nagy for several years, in part becuause the Soviets favored collective leadership, as this made it easier to control their Eastern European pupets. Rákosi finally had the MDP Central Committee of the MDP condemn Nagy for 'rightist deviation'. Hungarian newspapers controlled by Rákosi were ordered to blame Nagy for the country's economic problems.

Stalin's Death (1953-56)

While Stalin could maintain control by his iron hand, he could not repeal the iron laws of economics. Rákosi while in control poltically experiebced increasing problems with the economy. Instead of the brighter future promied by the Comminists, workers saw living standards fall. Inevitably as Rákosi had assumed the leading role in the Government became associate with the economic failures. Rákosibecame increasingly unpopular. Stalin's death in 1953 brought the possibility of change. Mátyas Rákosi was replaced as prime minister by Nagy. Rákosi remained a major force, however, as he retained the post of general secretary of the Hungarian Communist Party. Nagy and Rákosi became bitter rivals. Nagy as prime minister initiated major reforms in Hungary. Nagy introduced press freedom through which an open discussion on political and economic reform could be conducted. Of considerable interest was icreased priority to the production of consumer goods. Nagy order the release of anti-communists from prison. He also discussed free elections and withdrawing from the Warsaw Pact. This caudsed considerable concern in Moscow. Rákosi was able to attacks Nagy. The Central Committee of the Hungarian Workers Party censured Nagy for "rightist deviation" (March 9, 1955). The Hungarian media began attacking Nagy and blameing him for the economic problems. The National Assembly unanimously dismissed him (April 18). Rákosi was again appointed prime minister.

20th Party Congress

While Nikita Khrushchev participated in the Stalinist Terror, his single most important achievement was surely launching the De-Stalinization process (1956). Khrushchev stunned the delegates to the 20th Party Congress with his 'secret speech' which went on for 6 hours. He denounced both the excesses of Stalin and Stalin's personality cult. Even after Stalin's death, no one until the 20th Party Congress dared say anything negative about the former dictator. Today Khrushchev's speech seems timid given the enormity of Stalin's crimes. Khrushchev limited his denuciatons to crimes against the Party, not to the millions of Soviet ctizens he murdered or whose lives he destroyed. Wthin the Soviet empire the contents were electrifying. It was the beginning of the end of Stalinism, but not political repression. Despite his many negative actions and behavior as the Soviet leader, this was a courageous and critical action. Under Khruschev many were released from the Gulag--but the camps were not emptied. It should also be remembered that it was Khrushchev who ordered the Red Army into Hungary (1956) and gave permissiin to build the Berlin Wall (1961). It was Khrushchev who brought the world close to nuclear war over Cuba (1962). In his last years in power, the regime was again clamping down on disidents.

Hungarian Revolution (1956)

The Hungarian Revolution was a spontaneous nationwide revolt in reaction to the Stalinist brutalities of Mátyás Rákosi who ran Hungary as brutally as Stalin had the Soviet Union. The Hungarian Revolution ocurred in the midst of Nikita Khruschev's de-Stalinization program. Hungarians began to expect changes in their country. Rákosi was one of the brutal dictators that Stalin had imposed on the people of Eastern Europe. The Revolution broke out October 23, 1956. Students in Budapest bravely staged a demonstration which attracted others as they marched through the central city to the national Parliament. A delegation of the students went into the Radio Building in an effort to broadcast their demands. They were detailed by authorities which could have meant a long prison term. The demonstrators outside demanded their release. The State Security Police (ÁVH) answered by firing on the demonstrators. The demonstrators moved back, but news rapidly spread throughout the city and soon the city erupted in widespead protests and violence. And the disorders appeared in other cities as well. Anti-goverment groups organized militias and attacked the ÁVH as well as Soviet troops. AVH prisons were opened and Communist officials were jailed. Some officials and AVH men were executed. Quickly organized councils seized control of municicipal goverments all over Hungary. A provisional government disbanded the ÁVH, announced a decesion to withdraw from the Warsaw Pact, and committed to quickly holding free elections. The new governnment was in control of the country by the end of October. Soviet authorities announced a willingness to withdraw their militart forces. It is unclear if this was a ruse or that the Politburo actually changed its mind. One historian contends that Khruschev did not want to appear weak in the face of Western Operations in Suez, thus explaining the massive use of force in supressing the Hungarian rebellion. [Hitchcock] Soviet forces invaded Hungary (November 4). The Soviets killed thousands of civilians. The poorly armed militias were no match against Soviet tanks and well-armed and trained soldiers. The Revolution was ended by November 10 when organized resistance ceased. Mass arrests began. Hungarians that could, fled to the West. Austria opened its border and about 0.2 million Hungarians fled their country. Assessments of the Revolution vary. It caused many Communists in the West to question their beliefs. The brutality of the Soviet invasion and the Soviet supervised reprisals caused many in Eastern Europe at first to dispair amd conclude that the Soviets could not be confronted. Gradually Eastern Europeans began to conceive of non-violent approaches to challenging the Soviets.

Economy

After World War II, the Communists under the aegis of the Red Army seized control of Hungary (1945). Stalin oversaw the same provess in Hungary as the rest of the Soviert Empire he was constructing in Eastern Europe. There was a brief transitiinal period which was useful both to molify the Western press and to identify independent thinking figures to be be purged later (1945-47). The Commiunists were in control from the beginning, but ruked through coalition governments giving the illusion of democracy. The Communist Party seized full control (1948-49). With the breakdown of Soviet-Allied cooperation in occupied Germany andcthe formaloutbreak of the Cold War, cosmetic coaltions were no longer needed. A new constitution gave the Hungarian Workers' Party an exclusive monopoly on political power and thius the ability to completely overhaul the Hungarian economy. The Communists proceeded to enact a throughly Stalinist political and economic system (1949-53). The Communists launched on a massive program of industrialization. To the shock of the Communists, the economy did not grow like the economies of Western Europe. Not ony were the state-owned industries not profitable and able to pay good wages, but because of state policie, shortages developed for agricultural products. The economomic problens were only partly due to Communist inefficencies. The Soviet Union exploited all of its Eastern European subject peoples. Stalin's death seemed to create the the posibility of more flexibility (1953). Imre Nagy became prime minister. He announcedcnew policies called the New Course. The Soviers engineered his ouster (1955). The economic failure of the Stalinist economic system gavecrise to growing dissension and protest. The workers pradise the Communists had promised not only did not occur, but shortages andc shoiddybproductions meant that Hungarian living standards noyt only did not rise like those in the West, but fell below pre-War standards. The rumors reached Hungay of the Soviet 20th Party Congress and De-Stalinization. Workers and students rose up against the orthodox Communist regime that had replaced (October 1956). Imre Nagy assumed leadership, but the Soviets sent in their tanks to suppress the rebellion. They installed János Kádár as prime minister. The Soviets and their Hungarian acolytes like Kádár launch a Stalinist crackdown amd widespread arrests. Nagy was promised safe passage, but arrested and executed. The Hungarian Workers' Party because of its hated reputation was renamed the Hungarian Socialist Workers' Party. After the repression that followed, more liberal outlook took hold in Hungary and an economy which came to be called Goulash Communism. There were notable improvements, but Hungarian industry was not competive outside the COMECON barter system. This was the situation when Communism fell (1989). While the economic failings of Communist Hungary were well known, before the fall of Communism, what was not know was the envirimental desvestation wrought by stateowned industrial concerns.

Sources

Hitchcock, William I. The Struggle for Europe: The Turbulent History of a Divided Continent (Doubleday), 513p. This is a thought provoking, well researched book. He has gained access to never before used Soviet archives. We do not agree with all of his conclusions. The author in many instances, for example, tends to explain Soviet actions as response to American policies rather than the inherent nature of a brutal regime.

Created: 12:17 AM 10/23/2006
Last updated: 10:04 PM 4/18/2019