Figure 1.-- |
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There were proxy wars and competition for influence in the newly independent countries of the developing world, many of which introduced Soviet command economics. India adopted a command economy with a democratic political system. Many other countries discarded all but the trappings of democratic government. There was also an arms race between the two super powers. America and the Soviet Union adopted client states in the Third World to support their respectivde sides. Neither country was often that converned with domestic politics in those client states. The Soviets supported Iraq even though the Bath Party arrested and executed Iraqi Communists. The United States supported many non-democratic regimes, in some cases brutal regimes. The Cold War lasted over 50 years. Ase have said, it was not always fought well or wisely. Significant mistakes were made. America was involved in areas in which it was unfamiliar. Of course it easy now to criticize many of those actions. Much of the danger that America and the West faced during the Cold War is now lost. The collapse of the Soviet Union maked it seem that the West was not in mortal danger. Bit of course it was. Military analysts believe that the Sovirts had the millitary potential to sweep to the English Channel. Only the American nuclear umbrella stood in the way. Thus any asessment of American Cold War actions has to be taken in that context. Some historians have criticized America as militarily reckless and to willing to bomb third world countries. This criticism hasbecome increasingly sharp as the spector of Soviet Union fades in Europe and American and European public opinion increasingly diverges on a variety of issues.
The Soviets from an early point had interests in Communist Parties around the world and attracted young men to Moscow for education and training. Their primary focus was on Europe. With the onset of the Cold War they were able to make no further gains in Europe beyond the countries occupied by the Red Army in World war II. With the advent of BNATO and the American commitment to Europe, the Soviets saw expansion in Europe as unpractical and dangerous. As a result, it gradually becme apparent to the Soviets that the place to fight and win the Cold War was the Tird World and the most productive allies would not be Communists, but national liberation movements. The Soviets began attaching themselves to Arab nationalist movements which interestingly often had Fascist rather than Communist origins. Close associations were developed with several Arab countries (Egypt, Syria, and Iraq). The major Soviet Third World effort began with Castro in Cuba. The KGB codeword for Cuba became Beachead. [Andrew] Unlike many Third world clients, Castro had no experience in the Soviet Union or real commitment to Communism. Castro proved very advatageous to the Soviets and played an important role in the Non-Aligned Movement. He also proved difficult to control and a very expensive client. Racial equality is atenant of international Communism. This wa an advantage to the KGB in its Third World efforts. It was limited somewhat by the profoundly racist character of the KGB itself. [Andrew]
There were proxy wars and competition for influence in the newly independent countries of the developing world, many of which introduced Soviet command economics. India adopted a command economy with a democratic political system. Many other countries discarded all but the trappings of democratic government. There was also an arms race between the two super powers.
One of the most appealing aspects of the Soviet Union was the official commitment to international harmony. Here the focus was in large measure on the Third World. An aspect of this was racial equality as outside of Europe you have countrues populated with various other races. This was in part related to the generalized opposition to imperialism and as an extension racial equality. We note Soviet publications criticizing colonialism and promoting racial understanding. Soviet schools had International Friendship Clubs (KID). We do not know much about these clubs, but apparently the ideal of international solidarity and frirndship was supported. Notably actual contacts outside of official exchanges were not promoted. And Soviets citizens found it almost impossible to travel abroad. The Siviets did give scholarships to Third World students so they could study in Soviet universities. This approach also dove tailed with Soviet foreign policy which was confront the European countries with empires and the United States. The United States did not have an empire, but it did have a serious racial pronlem and the on set of the Cold War coincided with the Civil Rights movement. The problem for the Soviets was that while they criticized the European colonial empires, the Soviet Union itself was an empire. The various Soviet republics had no n-Russian populations whch had no desire to be aart of the Russian-controlled Soviet Union. And after World War II at a time in which the European countries were beginning to grant independence to their empires, the Soviets proceeded to estanlish a vast new empire in Eastern Europe. And the history of the Cold War is one continuos episode of these countries aspiring for independence from Soviet control. One interesting aspect of the Soviet pursuit of international harmony is the stidently anti-foreign attitudes in modern Russia, especially toward racial minorities. As much as the Soviets attacked America (in some cases jur=tifiably) for racial prejudice, America today is a country that has made great strides in race relations and the Soviet Union is a country in which anti-Semitosm and racial/ethnic hatred is rampant.
America and the Soviet Union adopted client states in the Third World to support their respectivde sides. Neither country was often that converned with domestic politics in those client states. The Soviets supported Iraq even though the Bath Party arrested and executed Iraqi Communists. The United States supported many non-democratic regimes, in some cases brutal regimes. The Cold War lasted over 50 years. Ase have said, it was not always fought well or wisely. Significant mistakes were made. America was involved in areas in which it was unfamiliar. Of course it easy now to criticize many of those actions. Much of the danger that America and the West faced during the Cold War is now lost. The collapse of the Soviet Union maked it seem that the West was not in mortal danger. Bit of course it was. Military analysts believe that the Sovirts had the millitary potential to sweep to the English Channel. Only the American nuclear umbrella stood in the way. Thus any asessment of American Cold War actions has to be taken in that context.
Some historians have criticized America as militarily reckless and to willing to bomb third world countries. This criticism has become increasingly sharp as the spector of Soviet Union fades in Europe and American and European public opinion increasingly diverges on a variety of issues. Historian William William Blum has compiled a list of instances during the Cold War in which the United States has bombed other countries and the extent to which democratic regimes have emerged in thise countries. Blum's list seems rather padded and in some instances his dates are off, but we are willing to take his list as a working document.
China (1945-46): The United States after World War II made some effort to promote a political settlement between the Nationalists and Communists. President Truman sent George C. Marshall to China to see what could be arranged. Of course compromise between the two was not possible. In the end, the United States supported the Natioanlists who by 1948 had lost the Civil war and retired to Taiwan. While I know the United States provided arms to
the Natioanlists, I am unfamiliar with an American bombing campaign in China during the Civil War. The result of American policy in China has been to help create an economic giant on Taiwan wgich is today a fully functioning democracy. As to mainland China, American policy has helped the Comminist regime begin to move away from totalitarianism, but they are still far from democracy as it is generally recognized in the West.
Korea (1950-53): The North Korean Communists, incouraged by Stalin, invaded South Korea in 1950. The United Nations Security Council (the Soviets were then boycotting Security Council sessions) authorized member states to oppose the North Korean invasion. The United States, heavily outnumbered on the fround used air power extensively to first stop the North Koreans at a perimeter formed around Pusan and them after an invasion at Inchon to desimate the North Korean Army. The results of this U.S. air camapaign was to help create another of the Asian Tigers which is now a fully functioning democracy. It is a sharp contrast to the respression and dispair of the Communist North.
China (1950-53): U.N. Commander General MacArthur took U.S. forced accross the pre invasion 38° Parallel border, causing the Chimese to intervene as American forces approached the Yallu River. Although the Nort Korean invasion was promyed by Stalin, the Chinese intervention convinced American planners that China was responsible. The Chinese pushed the Americans south and the war stalemated and continued until 1953. One of the issues that complicated an arrmistace was a Chinese demand that all POWs be repatriated even against their will. North Korean, Chinese, and Soviet pilots flew combat missions from air bases in China. Through most of the War, these bases were off limits to American pilots. The result was that China succeeded in saving the Communist North Korean regime. It is today perhaps the most represive in the world. It has a nuclear weapons program and its people are virtual worker slaves. Malnutrition is rampant and the country require massive foreign assistance to over mass statvation.
Guatemala (1954): The CIA intervened in Guatemala during 1954 to topple the elected Arbenz Government. There was some American bombing, but it was minimal. The issue here is more one of interference in the internal affairs of another country and helping to overthrow a democratically elected government. Leftist observers claim Arbenz was a moderate agraian reformer. The Eisenhower Administration concluded that he was attempting to install a Communist distatorship. This is an example of how the Administration policy was influenced by the Cold War. It is easy to say now that the United States should have followed the international conventions, the fear of Communism in Latin America was perceived as a danger to American security. The potential was later realized in Cuba which resulted in a Soviet military alliance and the the decission of over 10 percent of the population to flee their homeland. Castro notably passed himself off as a moderate, democratic reformer. What ever the intention of Arbenz, one established fact is that the United States backed and supported military regimes which conducted a brutal campaign of repression in the country side, noy only against Communists, but also labor leaders and moderate leaders of the rural Indian population.
Indonesia (1958): I'm not famimilar with this.
Cuba (1959-60): I am not familar with any American bombing in 1959-60. There was some bombing carried out by Cuban exiles associated with the Bay of Pigs in 1961 with aircraft supplied by the CIA. This is more an example of America deciding not to bomb. The Bay of Pigs was an operatiin planned under the Eisenhower Administration. Newly elected President Kennedy refused to allow the use of American combat forced to support the CIA-organized exiles. The result was the creation of a Communist Government in Cuba. The Castro regime took many positive social steps to improve the living conditions, especially for the rural poor, providing education and health care. The regime also nationalized foreign and domestic private enterprises, trnsforming Cuba from one of the wealthiest to one of the poorest coutries in Latin America. Castro clainms this is the result of an American embargo. Any balanced economic assessment will show the economic failures to be from mismanagement and the lack of incentives. The Cuban economy was so mismanaged, that the Soviets had to provide billions of dollars in economic assisatnce to keep the economy aflot. Combined with the natioanlization of private enterprises was the enstallment of a one-party totalitarian political system.
Guatemala (1960):
Congo (1964):
Peru (1965):
Laos (1964-73):
Vietnam (1961-73): The American involvement in Vietman is one of the great running sores in American life during the late 20th century. One of the many contrversial aspects of the was the use of Amercan air power, both in South and Nort Vietnam. This is an aspect of the Cold War that we have just begun to assess.
Cambodia (1969-70): President Nixon as part of his effort to force the North Viernamese to the bargaining table so America could withdraw from Vietnam initiated the bomving of Cambodia. We have few setails at this time, but given the military technology of the day, there must have been significant civilian casulaties. The bombing was a factor in the rise to power of the Khmer Rouge and their murderous regime. It is unclear if the Khmer Rouge would have come to power if Cambodia had not been brought into the War. Here we do not mean to suggest that America was soley at fault, both China and North Vietnam share some of te responsibility. In the end the price was paid by the Camboidian public.
Guatemala (1967-69):
Grenada (1983):
Libya (1986): After a series of muderous attacks in Europe, including blowing upma Pan Am flight over Lockerbe. Scotland, by Lbyan opoeratives, President Regan order an air attack on Libya, including the residence of Mohamar Qadafi. The result was that Libya stopped carring out terroist attacks in Europe.
El Salvador (1980):
Nicaragua (1980):
Panama (1989):
Iraq (1991-99):
Sudan (1998):
Afghanistan (1998):
Yugoslavia (1999):
Thw Soviets had a major impact on the leadrs that appeared in mang Third world countries. Many had studied in Moscow. Here there was a generational factor. Most were in the Soviet Union in the 1920s and early 30s. Many of those in the Soviet Union during these mid- and late-30s were consumed in the purges. [Andrew]
The KGB effort in the Third World did not succeed in turning any country into Communist countries. It did have a tremendous imact on Third World countries. Many Third World politicans attempted to implement Soviet political and economic models. The result was economic disaster. Many countries are today poorer than was the case during the colonial era. Third World leaders commonly ignored the economic success of the West or failed to understand the attributes of the West that brought economic success. Among these the importance of the rule of law was often ignored. The Third World is today still paying the consequences of this.
One tactic promoted by the KGB was terrorist attacks. The KGB first worked with Arab naionalist group. Today terrotism is srongly associated with Islamic fundamentalists. The first Arab terrorist groups were KGB-backed Communist groups. [Andrew] There were also Latin American equivalents like the Tupamaros. The KGB efforts thusplayed a role in promoting the growth of the serious Islamic Teroorist problems which ha manifested itself in Afgahnistan and later Chechnia.
Andrew, Christopher. The World Was Going Our Way: The KGB and the Battle for the Third World>
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