Figue 1.--Beitain and other mostly European countries during the 19th century forced a series of traties on China established some 80 treaty ports. This photograph was taken in Tientsin, modern Tajena, west of Korea. It is on the Bohai Sea, an inlet of the Yellow Sea. It was opened by Briish and French naval forces as a treaty port (!858) joined by several other countries. Chinese people lived in treaty ports, but were banned from many city facilies such as Victoria Park here. Notice the Chinee nanny with the children here. An exception was made for child csare workers. Also notice the wide-brimmed hats, baby bonnet, and pith helmets. Th girs are aring bpinafores. The photograph was not dated, but looks like the 1910s decade. Click on the image fr an enlarged view of the children

Often not understood in the West was how dominant China was in world events, especially economies and as a result technology. Chinese technology led Europe out of the medieval era. China began a maritime outreach to the West (early-15th century), but for whatever reason cancelled it. The impetus for the European maritime outreach and ensuing colonial era was a desire to trade directly with the East, including India, the Spice Islands, and most importantly China. This trade was controlled by the Ottoman Empire and the Arabs which blocked European access to the Silk Road and Spice Route. Venice and other Italians states benefited, but the Atlantic cost European countries wanted to benefit by direct access to the trade. This began the European Voyages of Discovery. The Portuguese began the voyages south needed to round the coast of Africa (late-15th century). Columbus thought he could reach the Indies by sailing west, but of course unexpectedly discovered the Americas. It would be the Portuguese who finally rounded he Cape of Good Hope and reached Asia (1498). European colonialism would eventually reached every corner of Asia. China was by far the most important objective. Trade was difficult becasuse the Chines had luxury goods (silk and porcelain), but the Europeans had little the Chinese wanted. It was evenually financed by the Spanish exploitation of silver in Mecico and Peru (15th century). This became the famous Manila Galleon Trade. China had been the great world generator of technology. But by the time the Europeans reached Asa, this had begun to change. While the Chinese were masters of technoogy, they never mastered the scientific method. Finally the Industrial Revolution irrevocably changed the balance of power. Britain and the other European powers proceeded to impose unequal treaties on China, imposing treaty ports on the Chinese. The same began in Japan but after the after the Meiji Restoration, Japan not only successfully resisted the Europeans, but launced an aggressibe program of modernization, including industrialization. It quickly became the major power in Asia, even defeating the Russians (1904-05). As the Europeans led by the Americans and the Open Door Policy becan drawing back from aggressively colonizing China, the Japanese became the major power attempting to colonize China, launching te Second Sino-Japanese War and engaging in horendous atrocities (1937). When the United States attempted to aid China, Japan launched the Pacific War (1941-45).

South Asia

No assessment of colonialism of colonialism is complete without an assessment of the British Raj. India was of course known as the "Jewel in the Crown" of the British Empire. Britain acquired India just at the time that the Industrial Revolution was changing the British economy. India provided an important market for the expanding output of cotton goods which were central to the early stage of the Industrial Revolution. This had a disastrous impact on the weaving industry in India. Along with the economic interest, by the 19th century, the moral imperative to Christianize and uplift the heathen had become an important part of Britain's role in India. In sharp contrast with Victorian moralizing was the role of that the British played in opium exporting that led to the Opium Wars in China. Britain's tax policy had at times a terrible impact on India. The British role in India, however, had many positive aspects. The colonial regime in India never included very many Britons. The vast majority of colonial administrators even during the Raj were Indians. To make this possible Briton had to educate large number of Indians. Is is not accidental that men like Gandhi and Nehru who achieved independence were educated in British schools. Briton also created the infrastructure of a modern state, especially railroads. India after independence has to be seen in many ways as an economic failure. A case can be made that this failure was not a result of colonialism, but the choices made by Indian officials after independence. India's economic failure seems largely due to the attempt to create a socialist state with large state-owned industries and an economy managed by a large state bureaucracy.

Southeast Asia

China

China touches on South Asia, Southeast Asia. East Asia, and Central Asia as well as the Russian Far East. Its size and economic importance needs it has to be considered separately. South Asia was separated by the soaring Himalays, but the other areas were open. Often not understood in the West was how dominant China was in world events, especially economies and as a result technology. Chinese technology led Europe out of the medieval era with advances like the abacus, blast furnace, boat rudder, bronze, cast iron, compass, gunpowder. iron smelting, paper, paper money, printing, mechanical clock, movable type, modern plows, rocketry, row crop farming, seed drill, and the wheelbarrow. Europeans were vaguely aware of China, but knew nothing about it until Marco Polo began publishing accounts of is travels (1260s). China had the power to expand and it did so into central Asia, Tibet, and Southeast Asia. It was also capable of maritime expansion as evidenced by Adm. Zheng He's famous voyages during the Ming dynasty (1405-33). For whatever reason, the Emperor decided to forbid further such expeditions. Advances like porcelain and silk incentivized Europeans to reach China. Direct contact was cut by Muslim control of Central Asia and the Middle East. This was not possible Europeans made advances in naval technology. The Voyages of Discovry was led by Portugal, but larger European powers soon followed. Ar first the powerful Chinese imperial state controlled European access to the Chinese market. The Europeans were stymied by the lack of goods that he Chinese wanted. As the trade expanded, it was largely financed by Spanish silver mined in Mexico and Peru. This was the famous Manila Galleon trade (16th century). As late as the 19th this dynamic led to the Opium Wars. The Industrial Revolution had led to a quantum lead in European military power. Imperial China refused to modernize, so did Japan until the Meiji Restoration (1871). Thus backward Imperial China not only had to face European imperialism, but Japanese imperialism as well. The Europeans for the most part did not create colonies in Africa and Asia, but rather trading enclaves. This was because weaponry did not have the capability of overcoming mass resistance and the existing states. The America was an exception. Following the Napoleonic Wars huge innovations in weapons technology gave the Europeans the ability to move inland and they began establishing colonies. The Zulu War (1879) is a good example of this. This occured in both Africa and Asia. China was an exception. The Europeans did not attempt to colonize China. Rather they established Treaty Ports. Setting up enclaves where they could establish a China trade. The British negotiated the first treaty port after the First Opium War under the Treaty of Nanking (1842). China also had to cede the undeveloped island of Hong Kong to Great Britain in perpetuity. The Treaty also established five treaty ports (Shanghai, Guangzhou/Canton, Ningbo, Fuzhou, and Xiamen/Amoy). Britian also forced China to the Treaty of the Bogue, which established extraterritoriality and the most favored nation status. Subsequent negotiations with the Americans led to the Wanghia Treaty (1844) and with the French to the Treaty of Whampoa (1844) led to further treaty ports on the same terms as the British. This was just the beginning. The power balance further deteriorated. And the Imperial Government was weakened by the Taiping Rebellion, the second most deadly war in history (1854-64). A second group of treaty ports was established after Second Opium War/Arrow War (1869). More than 80 treaty ports were established in China by more European powers (Austria-Hungary, Belgium, Germany, Italy, Portugal, and Russia/Soviet Union). There were also treaty ports in Japan, but Japan also open treaty ports in China. The treaties establishing the treaty ports are the core of the treaties know as the Unequal Treaties. These foreign incursions generated resentment among he Chinese. One result was the Boxer Rebellion (1900). Even before this, the United States began promoting the Open Door policy. Chang began unifying China after Wold War I and to dismantle the Treaty Port system. America and the Europeans generally accepted this, Japan did not. Japan attempted to impose colonial status on China with the Twenty-One Demands (1915). This caused a strong nationalist and anti-Japanese feeling leading to the May Fourth Movement (1919). Japan for a time hesitated, but the growth of Japanese militarism led to the seizure of Manchuria (1931) and eventually the Japanese invasion of China proper (1937). After spectacular Japanese victories, the Chinese Nationalists withdrew into the interior and Japan found itself bogged down in an endless war. The Japanese military also has designs on Soviet Siberia. And even bogged down in China, the strike North Faction of the Army took on the Soviet Red Army. The Japanese to take advantage of tensions in Europe launched attacks along the Soviet and Mongolian border. They were crushed by the Red Army at Khalkhin Gol (1939). Not deterred, the Strike South Faction began promoting war with America and Britain, especially as America began aiding China. The American Oil Embargo incensed the militarists force their hand. The result was Pearl Harbor and the Pacific War (1941). It might seem strange that the Japanese militarists unable to win a war with China would believe that the solution was to launch a war with America and the British Empire, but that is what they did. The catastrophic defeat ended Japanese imperialism.

East Asia

East Asia includes areas of northern China, Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and Formosa/Taiwan. The area included European acquisition of treaty ports, Russian and Japanese move into Manchuria, Korea and of course Japan itself. For much of history Korea oscillated between independence and a Chinese client state. There was a Japanese effort to seize control, fought off by the famous turtle boats (1590s) Russia reached the Far East (17th century). This brought the Russians in contact with China and forced significant territorial concessions on China. The Treaty of Aigun (1858) allowed Russia to annexed the land between the Stanovoy Range and the Amur, The Convention of Beijing recognized Russia to annex the Primorye (Maritime Region) south down to Vladivostok These treaties recognized the Russian Amur Annexation. These are some of the unequal treaties China complains about. (19th century). Russia than turned its focus on Manchuria. Chinese Emperor Kublai Khan initiated efforts to seize Japan (1274-81). The Mongol Empire was spread west to Eastern Europe and he Middle East. Expansion west to Japan was a seemingly foregone conclusion. This was a key step in the creation of a Japanese nation. It is at this time that we first see the term kamikaze (神風 'divine wind'). Japan during the medieval and early modern period was primarily concerned with domestic matters, except for a rare attempt to conquer Korea (1590s). The Shogunate raised domestic isolation to an extreme making it basically illegal for foreigners to enter the country. American Commodore Mathew Perry forced the Shogun to change his isolationist policy (1853). This led to the Meiji Restoration (1871) and the modernization impetus. Modernization led to industrialization and building a modern military. Japan as a result began building an empire with the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95). This resulted in Japanese control of Formosa/Taiwan and ended Chinese influence over Korea. It also led to Japanese-Russian competition for influence in Korea and Manchuria. This was resolved by the Russo-Japanese War (1904-05). This sharply reduced Russian influence in the area. Japan seized control of Korea (1909) and Manchuria (1931). Te big prize for Japan, however was China which was vulnerable because of the incompetent Manchu Dynasty. Japan joined in with the Europeans demanding treaty ports, but it's goals were much larger, demanding huge concessions during World War I with the 21 Demands (1915). After the War, Chang Kai Shek and the Nationalists (Kuomintang) led an offensive to unite China and destroy the Communists. This was the beginning of the Civil War. Chang gained control of the Treaty Ports except Shanghai and Hong Kong. Understanding Japanese power, he failed to react to the Japanese seizure of Manchuria, but had no choice when Japan invaded China proper (1937). This led to the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-45). Japan with its modern military scored major victories accompanied by horrendous atrocities. The Nationalists retired into the interior where Japan did no have the industrial capacity to reach them. The Japanese also had a desire to expand into Soviet Siberia. They studied the opportunities created as Europe moved toward war. The Japanese Army was dominated by the Strike North Faction. This was reassessed after the Red Army smashed Japanese forces in the Battle of Khalkhin Gol (1939). Japan shifted to a Strike South Strike South orientation. Supported by Western aid the War dragged on with the United States increasing it support, eventually to an oil embargo (1941). This led to the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor Harbor (1941). Japan's cataclysmal defeat ended Japanese imperial ambitions. The Nationalist victory was ended with the Communist victory in the Civil War (1948)

Central Asia

Created: 9:16 PM 11/7/2024
Last updated: 1:24 AM 11/8/2024