The Conquest of Peru: Military Phase (1532-36)

Pizarro at Cajamarca
Figure 1.--This John Everett Millais historical painting depicts Spanish Conquistadior Fernando Pizarro seizing the Inca Atahualpa at Cajamarca, It seems a resonably accurate depiction, ecept that they were in the square at Cajamarca and we don't see the Spanish war horses. Notice the priest with the cross at the left.

Columbus thought he has reached the Indies off Asia (1492). Soon the Spanish realized that they had discovered a new continent. At first they were content with settling the Caribbean Islands--the Spanish Main. Settlers in Cuba began hearing rumors of a fabulously wealthy mainland empire. Conquistador Hernando Cortez set out for riches in Mexico (1519). He managed to bring down the Aztec Empire with a smll force, primarily by seizing Emperor Moctezuma and aquired unhearsof wealth. The Maya were more of a problem because there was no central state, but the Conquistadores drove them into the Guatemalan hinterlands. Then rumors began circulating of a vast and rich South American empire. This was the Inca, the third of the great Native American empires centered in the hifh Andes which were largely unknown to the Spanish. Conquistador Francisco Pizarro set out with Cortez's tactics in mind and an equal thirst for gold. He set out with mere 200 men and a few war horses to conquer the Inca (1532). He knew as little about the Inca as the Inca knew about him, but he did have Cortez's successful tactics in mind. European diseases had preceeded him as well as an Inca civil war which had weakened the Empire. A handfull of Conquistadores as in Mexico managed to seize the Emperor--Atahualpa. They then proceeded to conquer an empire of millions ruled by a warrior class. Pizarro found what he was looking for, gold and silver beyond his widest dreams. As in Mexico Pizarro and his men would as aresult become fabulously wealthy.

Overview

The Spanish conquest of the powerful Inca Empire by a Pizarro's small band of Conquistadores is an action-pact story so improbable that it's difficult to believe it actually hoccurred and is not a Hollywood creation. The characters involved are fascinating, the young emperor who had just fought a civil war and an iliterate, but masterful commander. The events are epic and the histoical consequences pofound. Not only would it determine the political future of a continent, but power acruing to Spain would provide the financial ability to crush the spreading Protestant heresy n Europe, including the construction of the Great Armada to conquer England and the heretic Queen Elizabeth.

Preparations

Three difficult voyages of reconnaissance by Pizarro and others (1522, 1524, and 1526) preceded Pizarro's actual voyage of conquest (1531). The first time that the Spaniards actually reachef Inca territory was during the second trip of Francisco Pizarro (1526-27). They sailed along the northern coast (Paita, Sechura, and ) until reaching the outlet of the Santa River. Here they decided to return to Panama. After this voyage, Pizarro traveled back to Spain. The three partners in the conquest venture (Francisco Pizarro, Diego de Almagro, and Hernando de Luque) went to the royal capital of Toledo where they obtained royal permission--the Toledo Capitulation (1529). This granted Pizarro the title of Governor, General Captain, and the “Adelantado” of the New Castile in Peru.

Return to Panama

Pizarro returned to Panama with the royal warrant. Almagro was upset that much of their anticipated plunder would go to the Royal Treasury and that Pizarro had been named governor. Pizarro had succeeded in obtaining what Cortez never had, royal authorization.

Puna and Tumbes (1531-32)

Pizarro and his men armed with Royal permission set sail from Panama (January 20, 1531). He had 180 men and 39 horses. Pizarro's force was even smaller force than that Cortez landed in Mexico. The voyage south was long and difficult. Many Spaniards sucumbed to 'virulence'. They landed at the Inca city of Tumbes, a city now on the Ecuadoren-Paeuvian border (April 1531). They were received with a kind of quiet hostility. The Inca officials may have received reports of pillage that the SpAnish had been committing on the fringes of the Empire. Pizarro with his small force decided that it was not safe to establish a camo at Tumbes. He relocated his depleted force to the nearby island of Puna where he could prepare to attack the Inca city. Puna is aarge island, hust off the modern coast of southern Ecuador. Initially, the Spanish occupation of the island was peaceful. The natives were, however, a warrior people who had only reluctantly and partially accepted Inca rule and become a tributary state. Even so, The Punians occasional raided the mainland and were thus often at odds with Inca officals in Tumbes. After some time, fighting erupted between the Punians and the Spanish. The details are lost to history. Sone attributed it to the native interpreters who were hostile to the Punians. They warned Pizarro that Punian chiefs were preparing an attack. This may or not have been the case.Pizarro ordered the chiefs arrested. They were interrogated and Pizarro was apparently convinced of their guilt. He turned them over to Inca officials in Tumbes who executed them. The Punians were enraged at the execution of their chiefs and attacked the Spanish encampment in their thousands. The more disciplined Spanish, however, defied the Punian attack with pikes and musket. As the Punian onslaught faltered, Hernando Pizarro, ordered a calvalry attack, routing the Puniahns. The Punians regrouped in the interior and waged a guerrilla war to some effect. They destroying Spanish provisions and managed to capture and kill several scouts. Pizarro might have been in trouble, but at this stage, Hernando de Soto, arrived with supplies and another hundred Spanish soldiers. Thus reinforced, Pizarro embarked sailed back towards Tumbes. He landed there (May 16, 1532). Pizarro learned of the Inca civil war and decided to use it to his advantage.

Atahualpa's Reaction

European diseases had preceeded Pizarro and his men. An epidemic of smallpox was sweeping the empire. It was the epidemic that killed Huayna Capac and his heir apparent, launching the civil war. Atahualpa first viewed the reports of the strangers as only a minor curiosity. They did not understand the danger posed by the Spanish or the potential of their weapons.

Move Inland

Pizarro founded the first Spanish city in Peru, San Miguel de Tangarará (August 15, 1532). Pizarro began moving inland, sending messages to Atahualpa

Cajamarca (November 1532)

Pizarro began climbing into the Andes, following Inca Roads. He reached Cajamarca where Atahualpa was encamped (November16). He asked for an interview with the Inca for the next morning. Pizarro finally encountered Atahualpa in the great square at Cajamarca (November 16). Pizarro professed friendship, but prepared a trap. It is unclear why Atahualpa exposed himself to the Spanish. He may have been intrigued by the reports of the strangers. He must have felt himself safe surrounded by retainers and with a substantial military force at hand. He apparently felt that the Spanish simply were a small band of raiders and could be easily dealt with. Atahualpa enter the enclosed square with great formality, richly adorned, and surrounded by large numbers of retainers. One account relates, "First came a squadron of Indians dressed in a livery of different colors, like a chessboard. They advanced, removing the straws from the ground and sweeping the road. Next came three squadrons in different dresses, dancing and singing. Then came a number of men with armor, large metal plates, and crowns of gold and silver. Among them was Atahualpa in a litter lined with plumes of macaws' feathers of many colors and adorned with plates of gold and silver. Many Indians carried it on their shoulders on high . . ." [De Xeres] Father Friar Vicente de Valverde with Pizarro's consent approached Atahualpa with a cross in one hand and the Bible in the other. He told Atahualpa "I am a priest of God, and I teach Christians the things of God, and in like manner I come to teach you. What I teach is that which God says to us in this Book. Therefore, on the part of God and of the Christians, I beseech you to be their friend, for such is God's will, and it will be for your good. Go and speak to the Governor [Pizarro], who waits for you." Atahualpa who had never seen a book before asked to see the priest's Bible. Father Vicente handed it to him without opening it. Atahualpa did not know how to open it and angrily struck the priest when he attempted to open it for him. He then opened, but showed little interest in the writing, not understanding what writing was. The Inca had no written language themselves, instead relying on quipus. Atahualpa then tossed the Bible aside and complained about the behavior of Pizarro and his men. Pizarro approached with only four men at his side. He surprised Atahualpa and gave the signal, "Santiago y a ellos!" The guns were fired off, the trumpets were sounded, and the troops and calvary attacked. The natives attending Atahualpa drew back in in terror, especially of massive Spanish war horses, such large animals were unknown by the Inca. The natives broke down part of a wall in an attempt to escape. Most were put to the sword. Pizarro still held Atahualpa, but was unable to pull him down from the high litter on which he was carried until his litter barriers, important officials, were killed. Despite the slaughter, the natives did not attack the Spanish. The Spanish tore off Atahualpa's robes as they pulled him away. Atahualpa was shocked and disconsolate, not yet fully understanding that he had been dispossessed of his majesty. He now sat on the ground instead of a high litter and his throne and kingdom gone. Later Atahualpa was provided clothes and Pizarro came to see him. He told Atahualpa, "Do not take it as an insult that you have been defeated and taken prisoner, for with the Christians who come with me, though so few in number, I have conquered greater kingdoms than yours, and have defeated other more powerful lords than you, imposing upon them the dominion of the Emperor, whose vassal I am, and who is King of Spain and of the universal world. We come to conquer this land by his command, that all may come to a knowledge of God, and of His Holy Catholic Faith . . ." [De Xeres] Pizarro held Atahualpa prisoner thus preventing an Inca attack, the same tactic used by Cortez in Mexico.

Ransom

Atahualpa was held prisoner for almost 9 months Atahualpa, He was rightly afraid that Pizarro would have him killed. He offered Pizarro a great quantity of gold and silver in exchange for his release. Pizarro asked him, "How much can you give, and in what time?" Atahualpa replied, "I will give gold enough to fill a room twenty-two feet long and seventeen wide, up to a white line which is halfway up the wall." The height was that of a man's stature and a half. Atahualpa told Pizarro that up to that mark, he would fill the room with different kinds of golden vessels, such as jars, pots, vases, besides lumps and other pieces. As for silver, he said he would fill the whole chamber with it twice and he offered to do this within 2 months. Pizarro allowed to dispatch messengers to this affect and assured him that he was in no danger. Soon Atahualpa's family arrived with some gold and silver and gradually the rooms began to fill up. The treasure was stunning, tons of gold and other precious objects. Most of the Inca gold was in the distant capital of Cuzco. Pizarro was displeased with the rate at which the gold arrived and accused Atahualpa of conspiracy. Pizarro dispatched three soldiers to Cuzco (early 1533 ) to remove the magnificent gold and silver ornaments from Coricancha (the 'Gold Courtyard'). The final treasure totaled 13,420 pounds of gold and 26,000 pounds of silver.

Execution of Atahualpa (1533)

A local chief seeking Pizarro's favor informed him that Atahualpa had secretly ordered a great army be formed and that army commanded by Lluminabi was near Cajamarca. Pizarro who never intended to release Atahualpa from the beginning, confronted his prisoner. "What treason is this that you have prepared for me? For me who have treated you with honor, like a brother, and have trusted in your words!" Atahualpa denied that he was engaged in such a plot. Pizarro's partners and officers were against releasing Atahualpa and insisted that he be executed. They feared that he could rally his demoralized armies. Pizarro became convinced of the threat Atahualpa posed. Pizarro with the approval of his officers sentenced Atahualpa to death by burning,unless he became a Christian. He assented to this and was baptized by Father Vicente after which he was killed by garrote. Spanish sources report that Atahualpa 'died with great fortitude, and without showing any feeling ...' [De Xeres]

Cuzco (1533)

Pizarro next moved on Cuzco seeking to establish his authority by taking the capital and hoping large quantities of gold and silver still existed there. Pizarro appointed Huáscar's brother, Manco Capac, as a puppet Inca. The selection of Manco was a deft choice. There was no way of appeasing Atahualpa's supporters, but Manco was acceptable to Huazcar's partisans. This brought Pizarro native allies. Atahualpahad not only defeated Uuacar, but executed him. This mean that his supporters suffeed a huge decline in status ans wealth. Given the Spanish small numbers and lack of knowledge of local conditions, native allies were critical. Even with their superior weapons, without ntive allies they cold not have faced a huge Inca army. This had proven a decisive factor with Cortez in Mexico and was also important for Pizarro in Peru. And with Manco as titular ruler of the Inca Empire, Pizarro played upon divisions among the Inca. Even so, Pizarro faced considerable resistance. It took Pizarro almost a year after capturing Atahualpa to reach Cuzco. Pizarro had to fight a series of battles on the road from Cajamarca. Given the mountanous terrine, this was a remarkable accomplishment. Huáscar's surviving supporters giving their loyalty to Manco played an important role. Pizarro thus met and defeated Atahualpa's forces. As in Mexico, the superior Spanish weaponry proved decisive. The Spanish had large chargers, body armor, steel swords, guns, and cannon. These were weapons totally unknown to the Incas. Pizarro and other conquistadores mounted on horseback, protected by armor that the Inca weapons could not penetrate, and brandishing steel sword, the Incas could not rest the Spanish cavalry. The Spaniards were able to cut down Indian warriors with only wooden shields and cotton padding for protection. The Inca weapons clubs, spears, slingshots and arrows were rarely able to penetrate the Spanish armor. The Incas were at first not sure who they were dealing with. They were terrified by the Spaniards' horses and effective if primitive firearms--all new frighting new weapons to the native warriors. Pizarro finally entered Cuzco (November 8, 1533).

Manco Capac/Inca II (1533-44)

Manco Capac/Inca II (1516-44) ws also known as Manco Inca Yupanqui. He was one of the sons of Huayna Cápac and a younger brother of Huascar who had ward with Atahualpa, their half brother, for control of the Inca Empire before the arrival of the Spanish. After executing Atahualpa, Pizaro needed a pupet ruler to replace Atahualpa and help govern the Empire--a Quizling in modern terms. The first puppet Inca crowned by Pizarro was Túpac Huallpa. After his death, Manco Inca reached Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro in Cajamarca. Pizarro saw Manco as useful. The civil War between Husacar and Atahualpa had created a great deal of illwill and divided the Inca ruling class. Thus some Of Husacar's supporters and family were willing to support Manco. The Spanish then proceeded on to Cusco, the Inca capital. Pizarro's required the caciques their to ackowledge Manco as their new Inca. Manco Inca then joined Almagro and Hernando de Soto in pursuit of Quizquiz, one of Atahualpa's generals resisting Spanish control. We know little about Manco Capac II's expectations. He was still a teenager with apparenly little political experience at the time Pizarro executed. And like oyjer mmbers of Huascar's clan saw an opportunity to regain royal status. Apparently he thought that he would be the next Inca with real authority. Gradually he came to a realization that Pizarro would never permit this. Pizarro was able to control the situation for nearly 3 years using Manco as a figure-head Inca. One source indicates that he was at first accepted because Cuzco had favored Huascar. Pizarro after consolidated his control, established a new capital at Lima (1535). Pizarro permitted Manco to hold court in Cuzco, but surrounded by the Spanish he was a virtually powerless figurehead monarch. This was exacerbated by the disrespect even abuse with which he and his court was treated by the Spanish. His abusive treatment at the hands of the Spanish led him to plan a revolt. Hus first attempt at escape failed, but te second suceeded. He immediately began planning a campaign to drive the Spaniards out of Cuzco. He escaped from Cuzco and Pizarro's control (1536) and declared himself monarch (Sapa Inca) of the independent Neo-Inca State. He amassed a huge army. Some reports describe over 100,000 warriors. Manco then laid siege to the Pizarro in Cuzco. He came very close to victory. Only a daring Spanish breakout from Cuzco and an assault on Saksaywaman (there are various spellings) saved the Spanish. This was a stone fortress on a hill over looking Cuzco. Manco retreated to Ollantaytambo and then into the jungle at Vilcabamba.

Sources

De Xeres, Francisco. Narrative of the Conquest of Peru, 1530-34. Xeres was Pizarro's secretary.

Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Peru.







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Created: 5:59 AM 3/1/2013
Last updated: 8:41 AM 9/29/2015